SKETCHES 

OF  MEXICO 


BY 


JOHN  W.   BUTLER,    D.D 

Twenty  years  resident  in   Mexico 


CINCINNATI:   CRANSTON  &  CURTS 
NEW    YORK  :     HUNT    &    EATON 


ft/N 


Copyright,  1894,  by 
HUNT    &    BATON, 

NEW  YORK. 


Composition,  electrotyplng,  printing,  and  binding  by 

HUNT   *    EATON, 
150  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 


TO 

MY  VENERABLE  FATHER, 
THE  REV.  WILLIAM  BUTLER,  D.D., 

WHOSE  VOICE  AND  PEN,    FOR  MORE  THAN   HALF  A  CENTURY, 

IN  IRELAND  AND  IN  INDIA, 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  IN  MEXICO, 

HAVE  PLEADED  ELOQUENTLY   FOR  THE  WORLD'S    REDEMPTION, 
THESE  MEXICAN   SKETCHES  ARE 

AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED  BY 
HIS  SON. 


SYLLABUS. 


LECTURE  I. 

SOURCES   OF   INFORMATION. 

Spanish  cruelty.  The  heroic  Cuautemoc.  Hieroglyphics  and  pic 
ture  paintings.  Sacrilegious  vandalism page  I 

LECTURE  II. 

ORIGIN    OF   THE    MEXICANS. 

With  a  review  of  the  autochthonic  and  migratory  theories  concerning 
the  first  inhabitants  of  the  western  continent.  Noah's  grandson. 
Did  Solomon  draw  material  for  the  building  of  the  temple  from 
Mexico  ? 33 

LECTURE  III. 

PREHISTORIC    MEXICANS. 

Mexico  the  cradle  of  American  civilization.  St.  Thomas  and  the 
cross  in  Mexico 8 1 

LECTURE  IV. 

EARLY    MEXICANS    AND    THEIR    HISTORY. 

The  Toltecs.  Nahuas,  Chichimecs,  Aztecs,  etc.  Their  migrations. 
Their  civilizations.  The  Fair  God.  "The  Chair  of  God,"  or 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  The  Mexican  ensign  and  Bishop 
Simpson 121 

LECTURE  V. 

THE   MOCTEZUMAS  AND    THE    KING   DAVID    OF    MEXICO. 

Tenochtitlan.  Origin  of  the  word  Mexico.  Huitzilopochtli.  The 
Athens  of  Anahuac.  The  King  David  of  Mexico.  Mocte> 


vi  SYLLABUS. 

zuma  I.  "  Fight  till  death."  Spread  of  his  empire.  Mocte- 
zuma  II.  Mexico's  great  population.  Court  life  and  palaces 
of  pleasure.  Teocalli.  Human  sacrifices.  The  exaggerations 
of  Prescott  and  others.  Moctezuma  and  evil  auguries.  The 
European  on  the  coast.  Spaniards  and  greed  of  gold.  Europe 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  Original  copy  of  the  Bull  of  Alexan 
der  VI 163 

LECTURE  VI. 

THE   ARRIVAL   OF   THE   SPANIARDS. 

Hernan  Cortez  and  Luther,  "  the  infernal  beast."  The  cruel  con 
queror.  Unique  missionary  methods.  "  Apostolic  blows  and 
knocks."  "Without  a  parallel  in  history."  The  Tlaxcalan 
republic.  Why  Cortez  succeeded  against  such  odds.  Fall  of 
Moctezuma.  Indian  eloquence.  "  Tax  collectors,  priests,  and 
miners  " 199 

LECTURE  VII. 

INDEPENDENCE    AN*D    THE   CONSTITUTION    OF    1857. 

Colonial  times.  The  King  of  Spain  and  the  holy  father.  Priest 
and  soldier  despoiling  homes.  The  oppressive  legislation  of 
Spain.  The  Inquisition.  Hidalgo  and  his  cry  of  independence. 
Death  of  the  hero  and  triumph  of  his  cause.  Santa  Ana. 
Constitution  of  1857.  Separation  of  Church  and  State. . . .  239 

LECTURE  VIII. 

NEW   LIFE    IN    MEXICO. 

The  Mexican  War.  General  Grant's  condemnation  of  the  same. 
Extension  of  slavery*.  Ten  millions  for  Texas.  Reform  and 
Benito  Juarez.  Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  nuns,  and  sisters  of 
charity.  A  contrast — the  promoters  of  the  French  interven 
tion  and  the  present  condition  of  Mexico.  Protestant  missions. 
Latest  statistics.  Incidents.  Methodism  and  her  mission  in 
our  sister  republic 277 


INTRODUCTION. 


BY    LEROY    M.    VERNON,    D.  D., 

Dean  of  the  College  of  Fine  Arts,  Syracuse  University. 

THESE  lecture  sketches  are  an  opportune  and 
important  contribution  to  the  literature  re 
garding  our  next-door  neighbor  on  the  south. 
Our  national  neighbors,  like  citizen  ones,  are  inter 
esting  to  us  in  many  ways,  and  by  us  should  be 
respectfully  studied  and  thoroughly  known.  Yet 
Mexico,  much  as  it  and  the  United  States  have 
acted  and  reacted  upon  each  other,  is  but  very  im 
perfectly  understood  by  the  great  majority  of  our 
people.  This  is  due  partly  to  its  language,  so  dif 
ferent  from  our  own,  partly  to  Mexico's  relative 
minority,  exaggerated,  perhaps,  by  our  prejudices, 
and  partly  still  to  the  comparatively  limited  com 
mercial  exchanges  hitherto  between  the  two  peo 
ples.  But  most  of  these  conditions,  however 
formed  or  deformed,  are  now  being  sensibly  modi 
fied  in  themselves  or  in  their  effects,  and  the  two 
neighbor  nations  are  gradually  coming  into  closer 
relations,  politically,  commercially,  and  otherwise. 
Americans,  therefore,  have  increasing  need  and 
occasion  to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  history, 
the  institutions,  the  language,  and  the  character 


viii  INTRODUCTION. 

of  the  Mexican  people,  with  their  progress,  their 
genius,  and  their  aspirations,  with  their  possibilities 
and  prospects. 

Of  books  on  Mexico  published  in  English  during 
the  present  generation  the  most  were  written  by 
hasty  travelers  or  conventional  compilers,  whose 
views  and  portraitures  are  inevitably  immature, 
partial,  or  exaggerated.  Their  more  important  and 
characteristic  qualities,  gifts,  and  aims,  lie  too  deeply 
in  the  nature  of  the  Mexican  people  to  be  clearly 
discerned  and  duly  appreciated  by  the  passing  tour 
ist  or  the  nonresident  compiler.  The  richest  treas 
ures  of  information,  too,  regarding  their  traditions 
and  history,  their  struggles,  conflicts,  and  achieve 
ments,  are  tomes  in  Spanish,  Italian,  or  other  lan 
guages  not  often  either  accessible  or  intelligible  to 
such  writers. 

Our  present  author,  however,  fortunately  free 
from  such  obstructive  and  misleading  conditions 
and  disabilities,  came  to  his  work  with  peculiar  ad 
vantages,  personal  fitness,  and  zest.  Dr.  Butler  has 
an  easy  mastery  of  the  Spanish  language  and  a  close 
familiarity  with  the  daily  life,  the  habits,  and  the 
customs  of  the  people.  He  has  lived  and  labored 
among  them  in  the  city  of  Mexico  for  twenty 
years,  always  a  close  observer  and  a  careful  student 
of  their  character  and  life  and  of  all  that  relates  to 
them.  He  has  mingled  with  the  people  of  all  ranks 
and  classes,  from  the  president  and  his  counselors 
to  the  provincial  Indian  in  his  rude  hut.  He  has 
seen  the  Mexicans  in  their  workday  clothes  and  in 


INTRODUCTION.  ix 

their  galaday  garb,  in  their  toils,  their  sorrows,  and 
their  joys,  at  their  worship,  in  their  festivities,  and  in 
their  diversions.  He  has  traveled  extensively  about 
the  country  and  is  familiar  with  its  topography,  its 
antiquities,  its  vast  resources,  and  its  advancing  im 
provements.  Thus  he  had  ample  qualifications.be- 
fore  he  took  occasion  to  lecture  on  Mexico. 

There  is  much  interesting  material  here  relating 
to  the  first  inhabitants  and  to  the  earlier  institu 
tions,  to  memorable  incidents  and  to  controlling 
events  in  Mexican  history,  rarely  presented,  if  ever 
before,  to  American  readers.  Graphic  indeed  are 
the  pictures  Dr.  Butler  gives  us  of  the  Moctezumas, 
of  Cortez  and  his  followers,  and  of  the  Quixotic 
enterprise  of  Maximilian  and  Napoleon  III.  His 
representation  of  the  actual  republic  of  Mexico,  of 
its  founders  and  chief  factors,  of  its  policy,  its  liberal 
and  patriotic  spirit,  and  its  great  achievements 
already,  as  of  its  bright  prospects,  is  most  opportune 
and  valuable.  The  style  of  these  sketches  is  easy, 
lucid,  and  straightforward.  Those  who  followed  the 
lectures  closely  in  their  delivery  at  the  University 
this  spring  were  increasingly  interested  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end,  pleased  equally  with  their  cur 
rent  popular  style  and  with  their  richness  and  variety 
of  matter. 

Incidentally  Dr.  Butler  treats  of  the  remains  of 
ancient  cities  and  of  the  monumental  memorials  of 
former  civilizations,  many  of  them  until  recently  un 
known,  and  in  regard  to  which,  with  the  times  and 
people  they  represent,  there  are  no  historic  records 


x  INTRODUCTION. 

nor  any  credible  traditions.  The  account  of  these 
venerable  ruins,  of  strange  idols,  of  the  pictorial 
language  on  some  stone  memorials  and  of  other 
antiquities,  will  be  to  many  a  most  suggestive 
and  engaging  feature  of  this  interesting  volume. 
This  matter  is  the  more  attractive  now  because, 
since  the  delivery  of  the  lectures,  a  company  of 
American  explorers  have  sent  us  telegraphic  news 
of  their  discovery  of  the  vast  ruins  and  remains  of 
two  great  cities  among  the  Sierra  Madre  Mountains. 
Unquestionably  a  rich  field  awaits  the  archaeologist 
in  many  yet  unexplored  parts  of  Mexico.  It  was 
Dr.  Butler's  rare  fortune,  in  his  necessary  travel, 
quite  incidentally  to  discover  and  to  bring  to  the 
notice  of  the  governmental  authorities  an  ancient 
idol  of  colossal  proportions  lying  in  the  bed  of  a 
mountain  stream.  Although  the  Indians  of  the 
locality  had  seen  it,  it  was  wholly  unknown  to  the 
officers  of  the  country,  to  the  learned  and  to  the 
Mexican  antiquarians. 

A  country  of  such  extent  and  resources,  of  a  his 
tory  so  eventful,  of  so  abundant  prehistoric  memo 
rials  and  monuments,  of  so  progressive  a  government 
and  people,  of  such  present  energy  and  thrift,  and 
of  such  prospective  growth  and  power  well  deserves 
to  be  more  fully  and  more  widely  known — deserves 
also  a  full  share  of  our  individual  as  of  our  national 
consideration  and  comity. 
,  N.  Y. 


LECTURE  I. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION, 

2 


SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 


LECTURE  I. 
SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. 

ABOUT  midway  between  the  National  Palace 
and  the  historic  Castle  of  Chapultepec  (the 
"West  Point"  of  Mexico)  on  the  beautiful  Paseo, 
or  drive,  laid  out  by  the  unfortunate  Carlotta,  Arch 
duchess  of  Austria,  stands  an  imposing  monument 
which  excites  the  admiration  of  the  multitudes  and 
awakens  the  spirit  of  inquiry  in  many  a  thoughtful 
mind.  We  do  not  refer  to  the  great  equestrian 
statue  of  Charles  IV,  cast  by  Tolsa  in  1803,  which 
Baron  Humboldt  declares  to  be  the  finest  of  its  kind 
in  all  the  world,  next  to  the  famous  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  in  the  city  of  Rome,  as  it  is  the  most  elegant 
and  possibly  the  largest  bronze  statue  ever  made  in 
America;  nor  do  we  refer  to  the  Columbus  monu 
ment  donated  to  the  city  in  1877  by  Senor  Antonio 
Escandon,  with  its  solid  base  of  basalt,  octagonal  in 
form,  its  square  pedestal  of  Russian  jasper  bearing 
four  basso-relievos,  and  four  life-size  figures  of  as 


4  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

many  Spanish  friars  who  came  with  the  conquerors, 
and  on  the  top  a  graceful  statue  of  Christopher 
Columbus,  with  the  left  hand  drawing  the  veil  from 
the  western  world  and  the  right  raised  as  if  invok 
ing  the  benediction  of  Heaven  upon  his  hazardous 
enterprise;  but  we  refer  to  the  most  significant 
and  finest  of  them  all,  the  one  which  stands  in 
the  second  glorieta  (circle)  of  the  Paseo.  Here 
the  Mexican  architect  Jimenez  has  erected  a  mag 
nificent  memorial.  It  stands  on  a  slight  elevation 
above  the  drive  with  four  short  stairways  leading  up, 
the  entrance  to  which,  in  each  case,  is  guarded  by 
a  bronze  leopard.  Just  above  the  basaltic  pedestal 
on  two  sides  are  found  inscriptions,  and  on  the  other 
two  reliefs.  As  you  approach  from  the  east  the  in 
scription  which  first  meets  the  sight,  translated, 
reads  as  follows : 

"  To  the  memory  of  Cuautemoc  and  the  warriors 
who  fought  heroically  in  defense  of  their  country,  in 
1521." 

The  inscription  on  the  west  side  tells  us  that  the 
monument  was  ordered  by  General  Porfirio  Diaz,  in 
1876,  and  finished  during  the  presidency  of  General 
Manuel  Gonzalez,  in  1883.  On  the  north  side  you 
may  see  the  well-executed  relief  which  represents 
Captain  Diego  de  Olguin  delivering  his  royal  pris 
oner  to  the  Spanish  conqueror.  On  the  south  side 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  5 

is  represented  a  scene  which  might  well  cause  every 
son  of  Spain  to  blush  with  shame. 

Cuautemoc  and  his  cousin,  Tlacopan,  Prince  of 
Tezcoco,  having  both  fallen  into  the  hands  of  their 
heartless  conquerors,  have  been  bound  hand  and 
foot,  laid  upon  stone  slabs  while  their  fettered  feet 
hang  over  flames  of  fire.  In  this  way  the  voracious 
Cortez  hoped  to  compel  his  victims  to  reveal  the 
place  of  their  hidden  treasures.  More  than  three 
hundred  years  have  passed  since  this  most  atrocious 
deed  took  place,  and  the  world  to-day,  more  than 
ever,  realizes  the  real  motive  animating  the  hearts 
of  Cortez  and  his  followers,  notwithstanding  their 
constant  profession  of  a  desire  to  propagate  "  the 
Christian  faith."  Surely  "  the  love  of  gold"  was 
the  root  of  this  evil. 

This  bas-relief  brings  to  mind  another  historic  fact, 
in  itself  as  noble  and  inspiring  as  the  former  was 
disgraceful  and  infamous.  As  the  excruciating 
pains  ran  from  the  soles  of  his  feet  to  the  crown  of 
his  head  the  Aztec  monarch  suffered  all  without  a 
word  or  even  a  sigh  of  complaint.  But  the  Prince 
of  Tezcoco  called  out  to  him  in  his  extreme  agony, 
"  Sire,  seest  thou  not  how  I  suffer?"  The  indomi 
table  monarch  answered,  "  Am  I  in  a  bath  or  in  de 
light  ?"  or,  as  it  has  been  more  poetically  rendered, 
"  Thinkest  thou  I  am  on  a  bed  of  roses?"  No 


6  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

wonder  the  cousin  took  new  courage  and  that  some 
of  the  Spaniards  began  to  vacillate  concerning  their 
cruel  treatment. 

The  suffering  emperor  seemed  to  understand  all 
and  cried  out  to  them,  "  Do  not  be  weary ;  he  who 
has  resisted  famine,  death,  and  the  wrath  of  the  gods 
is  not  capable  of  humiliating  himself  now  like  a  weak 
woman  ;  the  treasury  of  the  kings  of  Mexico  I  sub 
merged  in  the  lake  four  days  before  the  siege  of 
the  city,  and  you  will  never  find  it." 

The  second  part  of  the  pedestal  contains  the 
names  of  four  heroes  and  representations  of  Aztec 
shields  and  arms.  On  the  third  section,  which  is 
beautifully  ornamented  with  ancient  symbols,  stands 
a  large  bronze  statue  of  the  heroic  Cuautemoc,  who, 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-four  years,  was  made  king 
of  a  kingdom  which  flourished  ages  before  Charles 
IV  ever  ruled  or  Columbus  ever  dreamed  of  seeking 
new  worlds. 

The  origin  and  history  of  the  people  who  could 
produce  such  noble  specimens  of  manhood,  as  well 
as  the  history  of  their  contemporaneous  and  suc 
ceeding  nations,  claim  our  attention  at  this  time. 
We  propose  also  to  speak  of  their  manners  and  cus 
toms,  languages  and  religions,  and,  after  devoting 
considerable  space  to  these  primitive  tribes,  we  will 
pass  under  review  the  ever-enchanting  Homeric 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  7 

story  of  the  Conquest,  the  not  less  interesting  colo 
nial  times,  the  heroic  and  successful  struggle  for 
independence  and  autonomy,  and  the  more  pro 
tracted  struggle  for  freedom  from  priestcraft  and 
papal  rule,  in  which  Louis  Napoleon,  Pius  IX,  and 
Maximilian,  Archduke  of  Austria,  each  played  such 
important  parts. 

We  will  then  look  into  modern  Mexico,  with  its 
new  life  and  ever-growing  development,  the  origin 
and  marvelous  spread  of  Protestant  missions,  their 
utility,  and  the  present  outlook  and  future  prospects 
of  this  most  interesting  and  wonderful  country. 

That  this  continent  was  inhabited  centuries  before 
the  so-called  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  in 
1492,  or  by  the  Northmen  from  Scandinavia — which 
latter  discovery,  according  to  Humboldt,  took  place 
about  the  year  1000 — is  no  longer  a  disputed  ques 
tion.  Empires  with  thousands,  and  in  some  cases 
millions,  of  subjects  rose  in  splendor  on  American 
soil,  flourished  for  centuries,  and  passed  away,  only 
to  be  succeeded  by  others  more  numerous  or  power 
ful  than  they.  Mexico  was  the  home  of  some  of  the 
most  interesting  and  lasting  of  those  empires. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  the  sacrilegious 
vandalism  and  mistaken  religious  zeal  of  the  Span 
ish  conquerors  has  robbed  the  student  of  history  of 
records  which  to-day  ought  to  be  found  in  the  uni- 


8  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

versities  and  museums  of  our  sister  republic.  Their 
existence  would  have  opened  up  a  rich  field  of  study, 
as  fascinating  as  any  which  the  masters  of  Roman 
and  Greek  literature  have  placed  in  the  libraries  and 
curriculums  of  American  colleges.  The  Aztecs  and 
contemporaneous  as  well  as  antecedent  tribes  com 
memorated  passing  events  by  elaborate  sculpture 
and  picture  painting. 

Brantz  Mayer,  for  some  time  secretary  of  the 
American  Legation  in  Mexico,  in  his  valuable  work 
justly  remarks :  "  One  of  the  most  disgraceful  de 
structions  of  property  recorded  in  history  is  that 
which  was  accomplished  in  Mexico  by  the  first 
archbishop  of  New  Spain,  Juan  de  Zumarraga.  He 
collected  from  all  quarters,  but  especially  from  Tez- 
coco,  where  the  national  archives  were  deposited, 
all  the  Indian  manuscripts  he  could  discover,  and, 
causing  them  to  be  piled  in  a  great  heap  in  the 
market  place  of  Tlatelolco,  he  burned  all  these  pre 
cious  records,  which  under  the  skillful  interpreta 
tions  of  competent  natives,  might  have  relieved  the 
early  history  of  the  Aztecs  from  the  obscurity  with 
which  it  is  now  clouded.  The  superstitious  soldiery 
eagerly  imitated  the  pious  example  of  this  prelate, 
and  emulated  each  other  in  destroying  all  the  books, 
charts,  and  papers  which  bore  hieroglyphic  signs, 
whose  import,  they  had  been  taught  to  believe,  was 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  9 

as  sacrilegiously  symbolic  and  pernicious  as  that  of 
the  idols  they  had  already  hurled  from  the  Indian 
temples."* 

This  wholesale  destruction  was  doubtless  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  priests  mistook  these  pictured 
figures  to  be  representatives  of  heathen  deities. 
Father  Bartholomew  de  las  Casas  admits,  in  his 
Historia  Apologetica,  that  they  were  actuated  by 
the  fear  that  in  matters  of  religion  the  existence  of 
these  books  would  be  injurious. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  "  The  infamous  crime  com 
mitted  against  the  cause  of  knowledge  and  the  irrep 
arable  injury  done  to  the  natives,  their  successors, 
and  to  the  students  of  history  for  all  time,  by  the 
destruction  of  those  valuable  manuscripts,  must  ever 
remain  an  unerasable  blot  upon  the  name  of  the  early 
Church  in  Mexico,  and  must  be  ranked  with  the 
worst  deeds  of  Goths  and  Vandals.  Juan  de  Zumar- 
raga,  the  chief  of  these  sacrilegious  destroyers,  who 
committed  the  annals  of  the  Mexican  States  publicly 
to  the  flames  in  his  tour  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
country,  will  ever  be  remembered  with  proper  con 
tempt."  f 

These  sad  facts  are  sustained  by  Torquemada,  by 
Ixtlilxochitl,  as  quoted  by  Lord  Kingsborough  in 

*  Hartford  edition,  1851,  p.  92. 

f  J.  T.  Short's  The  North  Americans  of  Antiquity,  p.  429. 


io  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

his  monumental  work  on  Mexican  Antiquities^  by 
Prescott,  Sahagun,  Clavigero,  Humboldt,  and  by 
many  others. 

The  value  of  these  hieroglyphics  and  picture 
paintings  will  appear  to  us  when  we  remember  that 
the  aboriginals  of  Mexico  recorded  by  these  means 
everything  which  they  deemed  worthy  of  preserva 
tion,  and  the  art  was  greatly  prized  and  zealously 
cultivated  by  them,  but  was  thus  lost  to  humanity 
forever. 

Bancroft,  from  whose  extensive  works  we  shall 
frequently  quote  in  these  Lectures,  says: 

"  The  written  records  included  national,  historic, 
and  traditional  annals,  names  and  genealogical  tables 
of  kings  and  nobles,  lists  and  tribute  rolls  of  prov 
inces  and  cities,  land  titles,  law  codes,  court  records, 
the  calendar  and  succession  of  feasts,  religious  cere 
monies  of  the  temple  service,  names  and  attributes 
of  the  gods,  the  mysteries  of  augury  and  soothsay 
ing,  with  some  description  of  social  customs,  mechan 
ical  employments,  and  educational  processes.  The 
preparation  and  guardianship  of  records  of  the 
higher  class,  such  as  historical  annals  and  ecclesias 
tical  mysteries,  were  under  the  control  of  the  high 
est  ranks  of  the  priesthood,  and  such  records,  com 
paratively  few  in  number,  were  carefully  guarded  in 
the  temple  archives  of  a  few  of  the  larger  cities. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  n 

These  writings  were  a  sealed  book  to  the  masses, 
and  even  to  the  educated  classes,  who  looked  with 
superstitious  reverence  on  the  priestly  writers  and 
their  magic  scrolls.  It  is  probable  that  the  art  as 
applied  to  names  of  persons  and  places  or  to  ordinary 
records  was  understood  by  all  educated  persons, 
although  by  no  means  a  popular  art,  and  looked 
upon  as  a  great  mystery  by  the  common  people. 
The  hieroglyphics  were  painted  in  bright  colors  on 
long  strips  of  cotton  cloth,  prepared  skins,  or  maguey 
paper,  generally  the  latter  rolled  up  or,  preferably, 
folded  fanlike  into  convenient  books  called  "  amatl," 
and  furnished  often  with  thin  wooden  covers.  The 
same  characters  were  also  carved  on  the  stones  of 
public  buildings,  and  probably  also  in  some  cases  on 
natural  cliffs.  The  early  authorities  are  unanimous 
in  crediting  these  people  with  the  possession  of  a 
hieroglyphic  system  sufficiently  perfect  to  meet  all 
their  requirements." 

Fortunately,  however,  the  learned  Dr.  Robertson, 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  who  lived  and 
wrote  in  the  eighteenth  century,  is  not  quite  correct 
when  he  says,  "  In  consequence  of  this  fanatical  zeal 
of  the  monks  we  have  totally  lost  every  intelligence 
of  the  most  remote  events  contained  in  these  rude 
monuments,  and  there  does  not  remain  a  single 
trace  of  the  policy  and  ancient  revolutions  of  the 


12  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

empire  excepting  those  which  are  derived  from  tra- 
dition  or  from  some  fragments  of  their  historical 
pictures  which  escaped  the  barbarous  search  of  Zu- 
marraga.  It  appears  evident  from  the  experience 
of  all  nations  that  the  memory  of  past  events  can 
not  be  long  preserved,  nor  transmitted  with  fidelity, 
by  tradition.  The  Mexican  pictures,  which  are  sup 
posed  to  have  served  as  annals  of  their  empire,  are 
few  in  number  and  of  ambiguous  meaning.  Thus, 
from  the  uncertainty  of  the  one  and  the  obscurity 
of  the  others,  \ve  are  obliged  to  avail  ourselves  of 
such  intelligence  as  can  be  gleaned  from  the  imper 
fect  materials  which  are  found  scattered  in  the 
Spanish  writers." 

We  find  a  list  of  some  three  hundred  different 
works  (largely  Spanish  and  Portuguese)  published  in 
the  first  part  of  Dr.  Robertson's  valuable  History, 
which  were  consulted  by  him,  and  hence  we  cannot 
understand  how  he  was  so  seriously  deceived.  He 
seems,  like  many  others  who  never  visited  the  country, 
to  have  overlooked  entirely  the  histories  written  by 
the  Indians  themselves,  and  to  have  failed  in  appre 
ciation  of  the  historical  pictures,  which  in  some 
cases  were  hidden  away  by  the  natives,  and  in 
other  cases  were  reproduced  by  their  artists  at  the 
time. 

Clavigero,  a  recognized   authority,   declares   that 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  13 

"  at  the  time  the  missionaries  performed  that  unfor 
tunate  burning  of  the  pictures  many  Acolhuan, 
Mexican,  Tepanecan,  Tlascalan,  and  other  histo 
rians  were  living,  and  employed  themselves  to  repair 
the  loss  of  these  monuments.  This  they  in  part 
accomplished  by  painting  new  pictures  or  making 
use  of  our  characters,  which  they  had  learned,  and 
instructing  by  word  of  mouth  their  preachers  in 
their  antiquity,  that  it  might  be  preserved  in  their 
writings,  which  Motolinia,  Olmos,  and  Sahagun 
have  done."  * 

From  the  same  author  we  learn  of  the  existence 
of  five  valuable  collections  of  these  paintings: 

i.  The  Mendoza  collection.  This  collection  was 
composed  of  sixty-three  Mexican  paintings  secured 
by  one  of  the  early  bishops  of  Mexico,  Antonio  Men 
doza,  for  Charles  V.  The  vessel  in  which  they  were 
shipped  was  captured  on  the  high  seas  by  French 
pirates  and  carried  to  France.  Here  they  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Thevenot,  a  noted  geographer,  whose 
heirs  sold  them  at  a  great  price  to  the  chaplain  of 
the  British  embassy,  who  sent  them  to  his  native 
land  and  possibly  to  the  British  Museum.  The 
first  twelve  contain  the  history  of  the  foundation  of 
Mexico,  the  years  and  conquest  of  the  kings;  the 

*  History  of  Mexico,  Abbe  F.  S.   Clavigero,  Richmond  edition, 
1833,  P.  33- 


14  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

thirty-four  following  represent  the  tributary  cities 
and  the  quantity  and  species  of  their  tributes ;  and 
the  remaining  seventeen  explained  a  part  of  the  edu 
cation  of  their  youth  and  their  civil  government. 

2.  The    Vatican    collection.       Acosta    mentions 
such  a  collection,  which  is  doubtless  still  in  existence. 

3.  The  Vienna  collection.     This  consists  of  eight 
paintings,  which  were  presented  by  the  King  of  Por 
tugal  to  Clement  VII.     From  the  pope  they  passed 
into  the  hands  of  others,  and  finally  were  presented 
to  Leopold,  the  emperor. 

4.  The  Siguenza  collection.     This   learned  anti 
quarian  of  Mexico  is  said  to  have  made  a  large  col 
lection  of  valuable  paintings,  part  of  which  he  in 
herited  from  the  famous  Ixtlilxochitl,  who  in  turn 
inherited   them    from   his   ancestors,  the   kings  of 
Tezcoco.      Siguenza,  on   his  death,  left   all  to  the 
Jesuit  College  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  in  the  city 
of  Mexico.    They,  in  common  with  all  Church  prop 
erty,  were  confiscated  by  the  republican  government 
in  1859. 

5.  The  Boturini  collection — called  his  historical 
Indian    Museum — was    composed    of  many  maps, 
hieroglyphics  on  skin    and  maguey  paper.     These 
were   confiscated   by  the   colonial  government  and 
deposited  in  the  Royal  University,  founded  in  1553. 
It  is  said  this  seemingly  arbitrary  act  was  due  to 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  15 

the  fact  that  many  of  these  precious  treasures  were 
being  lost  through  the  carelessness  of  the  Boturini 
family. 

The  remains  of  this  and  the  Siguenza  collection 
are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  government  in  the 
city  of  Mexico,  and,  doubtless,  make  the  most  valu 
able  of  existing  collections. 

Specimens  of  the  picture  writings  are  also  found 
in  some  of  the  old  Indian  families  of  Mexico.* 
Others  have  found  their  way  into  libraries  of  Eu 
rope  as  well  as  in  the  United  States.  At  least  one 
original  and  several  duplicates  may  be  seen  in  the 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

Mr.  F.  A.  Ober  says  that  during  one  of  his  three 
visits  to  Mexico  he  heard  of  one  "  over  sixty  feet 
long,  a  narrow  strip,  folded  after  the  manner  of  a 
book,  with  wooden  strips  at  the  extremities,  which 
formed  the  covers  when  closed." 

On  this  subject  in  general  the  same  author  adds: 

"  Although  the  best  and  most  valuable  Aztec 
manuscripts  or  picture  paintings  were  destroyed  by 
Zumarraga,  first  bishop  of  Mexico,  some  remained, 
and  others,  as  soon  as  the  Spaniards  became  sen 
sible  of  this  error,  weue  produced  by  learned  Indians 

*  Senor  Icazbalceta,  Senor  Alfredo  Chavero,  Senor  Abadiano, 
and  other  Mexican  antiquarians  own  some  of  these  now  priceless 
relics. 


16  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

by  order  of  the  viceroy.  We  know  that  the  Mexi 
cans  were  very  apt  at  depicting  scenes  and  repre 
senting  occurrences,  and  that  the  landing  of  the 
Spaniards  in  1519,  with  all  its  attendant  circum 
stances,  was  transmitted  to  Moctezuma  by  his  skill 
ful  painters  before  the  bustle  of  that  event  had  sub 
sided."  * 

In  the  great  book  by  Lord  Kingsborough  we  may 
find  the  various  "  codices  "  produced  in  facsimile, 
with  all  the  bright,  fadeless  colors  of  the  originals. 
"  I  have  in  my  possession  a  lithographed  chart  in 
black  and  white,  of  some  five  meters  in  length,  pre 
pared  by  direction  of  that  indefatigable  archaeolo 
gist,  Mr.  Squier,  so  well  known  as  an  authority 
on  Central  America.  Four  'maps,'  or  charts,  are 
given  ;  the  first,  a  history  of  the  sovereign  States 
and  the  kings  of  Acolhuacan,  is  a  nonchronological 
map,  belonging  to  the  collection  of  Boturini.  It  is 
on  prepared  skin,  and  represents  the  genealogy  of 
the  Chichimeque  emperors  from  Tlotzin  to  the  last 
king,  Don  Fernando  Ixtlilxochitl,  and  has  a  number 
of  paragraphs  in  Nahuatl,  or  Mexican.  It  belonged, 
according  to  an  inscription  on  the  back,  to  Don 
Diego  Pimental,  descendant  of  King  Nezalhual- 
coyotl.  It  gives  a  summary  of  the  wars,  pestilences, 
etc.,  which  destroyed  the  Toltecs,  and  depicts  the 

*  Travels  in  Mexico,  p.  316. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  17 

journeyings  of  the  barbarous  Chichimecs  who  in 
vaded  the  valley  of  Anahuac,  and  finally  established 
themselves  at  Tezcoco.  I  produce  here  fragments 
of  two  of  the  pictures  showing  them  as  living  in  the 
caves  of  Chicomoztoc,  their  subsequent  migration, 
and  their  barbarous  nomadic  life,  when  they  sub 
sisted  entirely  upon  the  chase  and  the  wild  plants 
of  the  field.  The  second  series  pictures  them  as 
having  settled  at  Tezcoco  and  engaged  in  the  pur 
suits  of  agriculture,  being  surrounded  by  figures  of 
the  .maguey,  cultivated  cactus,  and  other  plants. 
The  third  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  their  later  life,  after 
they  had  assimilated  the  remnant  of  the  Toltecs  re 
maining  in  the  valley  and  had  learned  from  them 
the  arts  for  which  the  latter  people  had  been  dis 
tinguished,  such  as  the  casting  of  metals,  the  man 
ufacture  of  jewelry,  copper  utensils,  etc.  The  most 
valuable  of  the  series  is  called  '  Map  Tepechpan,' 
also  one  of  the  Boturini  collection,  and  consists  of 
synchronous  annals  of  the  principalities  of  Tepech 
pan  and  Mexico,  commencing  with  the  year  1298 
and  ending  at  the  conquest,  subsequently  extended 
by  less  skillful  hands  to  1596. 

"  Like  the  two  manuscripts  before  spoken  of,  these 
go  back  to  the  savage  era  of  the  Chichimecs,  but 
give  the  leading  events  in  the  Tepechpan  and  Mex 
ican  tribes  until  the  establishment  of  the  Mexican 
3 


1 8  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

empire,  thence  relating  exclusively  to  the  latter. 
Wars,  earthquakes,  volcanic  eruptions,  inundations, 
etc.,  are  all  accurately  recorded  under  the  date  of 
their  occurrence.  The  coming  of  Cortez,  the  death 
of  Moctezuma,  the  murder  of  his  nephew,  and  the 
accession  of  Guatemotzin  are  all  intelligibly  set 
down  here  in  unmistakable  characters." 

We  are  aware  that  tradition  is  not  always  a  safe 
guide  to  follow,  it  is  so  likely  to  be  distorted  ;  but 
we  also  think  that  many  learned  writers  in  our  own 
country  as  well  as  Europe  make  a  great  mistake  in 
almost  completely  ignoring  traditional  help  in  the 
study  of  the  American  question.  This  is  especially 
so  with  those  who  study  the  question  "  from  afar," 
and  publish  their  opinions  without  ever  visiting  the 
cradles  of  these  traditions  and  seeing  for  themselves 
such  monumental  evidences  as  are  often  found  in 
support  of  what  is  generally  called  tradition.  For 
example,  the  learned  Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton,  of  the  Uni 
versity  of  Pennsylvania,  has  recently  published  a 
volume  of  most  valuable  essays. *  One  of  these  he 
entitles  "  The  Toltecs  and  Their  Fabulous  Empire." 
We  cannot  resist  the  conviction  that  the  doctor 
would  greatly  modify  his  opinions  if  he  would  only 

*  Essays  of  an  Americanist,  Daniel  G.  Brinton,  A.M.,  M.D. 
Philadelphia,  1890.  The  same  author  published  in  1868  The  Myths, 
of  the  New  World. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  19 

spend  a  few  months  in  Mexico  and  stand  in  the 
presence  of  mute  yet  powerful  and  mysterious  relics 
which  are  seen  on  every  hand. 

For  instance,  he  calls  the  Toltecs,  as  currently 
related  to  ancient  Mexican  history, "  a  myth  "  (p.  83), 
and  the  Toltec  empire  "  a  baseless  fable  "  (p.  85), 
and  exclaims  concerning  the  famous  ruins  of  Tula, 
"  I  fear  that  they  are  to  be  sought  nowhere  outside 
the  golden  realm  of  fancy  and  mythical  dreaming." 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  valuable  testi 
mony  of  contemporaneous  writers  who  testify  to 
what  they  have  not  only  heard,  but  seen  with  their 
own  eyes.  Let  us  quote  from  two  of  these.  Colonel 
Thomas  Nuett  Brocklehurst,  a  retired  officer  of  the 
British  army,  made  quite  an  extensive  tour  in  Mex 
ico  in  1 88 1.  Among  the  points  of  interest  visited 
by  this  observing  English  gentleman  was  Tula,  and 
in  his  Mexico  To-Day  he  says  : 

"  Tula,  formerly  known  as  Tolam,  was  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Toltec  nation  about  the  seventh  cen 
tury,  and  had  necessarily  a  palace  for  its  king  and 
many  temples.  The  palace  stood  on  the  top  of  a 
neighboring  hill,  and  its  foundation  and  ruins  have 
been  lately  excavated  by  Mons.  Charnay.  It  ap 
pears  to  have  consisted  of  a  great  number  of  small 
rooms,  narrow  passages,  steps,  and  little  courts.  In 
these  latter  there  were,  probably,  from  the  present 


20  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

aspect  of  the  ground,  tanks  of  water.  The  walls  were 
thickly  plastered  and  painted  red.  Scrubby  bushes 
and  vegetation  cover  most  of  the  buildings.  Near 
the  foot  of  the  hill  are  the  remains  of  two  temples; 
the  walls  of  the  one  which  I  visited,  still  standing 
and  forming  three  sides  of  a  hexagon,  are  twenty- 
five  feet  high  and  turreted,  and  there  appears  to 
have  been  a  chamber  or  platform  at  about  three 
fourths  of  the  height,  judging  from  a  ledge  and 
some  rafter  holes  in  the  masonry.  There  was  a  large 
amount  of  stone  debris  round  the  base  through 
which  trees  had  forced  their  way  and  had  grown  up 
so  as  almost  to  hide  the  temple.  Our  guide  said 
the  other  temple  had  still  a  perfect  roof,  and  I  made 
an  effort  to  visit  it  ;  but  our  horses  got  stuck  in 
some  swampy  ground,  and  we  could  not  reach  it. 

"  In  the  market  place  of  Tula  are  four  colossal 
pieces  (one  prostrate)  of  ancient  Toltec  statuary. 
Strange  to  say,  the  legs  and  feet  only  are  standing; 
their  height  is  only  eight  feet,  and  \ve  were  told 
they  were  originally  brought  from  the  palace  ex 
cavated  by  Mons.  Charnay.  But  wkat  has  become 
of  the  busts  and  heads  of  these  monsters  I  was  un 
able  to  find  out." 

That  tireless  traveler  and  lecturer  of  our  country, 
Fred.  A.  Ober,  says  that  Sefior  Cubas,  in  a  paper, 
Ruinas  de  la  Antigua  Tollam,  published  in  1874, 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  21 

gives  a  list  of  the  antiquities  discovered  near  Tula, 
and  lithographed  figures  of  the  most  prominent 
sculptures,  which  included  a  "zodiac"  and  a  "hier 
oglyph,"  now  seen  in  the  lintel  of  the  principal  en 
trance  to  the  great  church.  "  In  the  Plaza  are  some 
great  stones,  taken  from  the  ruins  of  the  Toltec  city. 
There  are  three  colossal  sculptures,  perhaps  of 
caryatides,  standing  erect,  and  another  lying  down. 
This  last  is  in  two  pieces,  and  was  formerly  united 
by  tenon  and  mortise,  even  as  I  found  the  adorn 
ments  on  the  palace  of  Uxmal.  Near  the  office  of 
the  railroad  superintendent  is  a  great  stone  ring, 
like  those  found  in  the  ruins  of  Chichen-Itza.  At 
the  door  of  the  cathedral  is  a  beautiful  baptismal 
font — at  least,  that  is  its  use  now — taken  from  these 
same  Toltec  ruins.  Doubtless  nearly  all  the  build 
ings  here  were  made  from  stone  taken  from  the 
Toltec  city,  as  you  may  find  sculptured  stones  used 
for  the  pavement  of  courts,  inserted  in  walls,  etc. 

"  I  have  thus  roughly  sketched  the  old  city  at 
which  the  great  railroad  arrived  in  April,  1881. 
Let  tourists  and  archaeologists  visit  it,  now  that 
they  can  do  so  with  little  fatigue.  It  does  not  need 
a  more  prophetic  eye  than  belongs  to  ordinary  man 
to  discern  the  result  of  the  opening  of  a  country  so 
rich  in  mineral  and  archaeological  wealth.  For  a 
thousand  years  man  has  lived  in  this  country 


22  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

— a  thousand  that  are  chronicled,  and  no  one 
knows  how  many  previously.  The  works  of  his 
hands  lie  scattered  throughout  valley  and  plain, 
crest  many  a  hill,  and  adorn  many  a  secluded  vale. 
The  time  is  coming  when  it  is  possible  to  reach 
many  hitherto  hidden  from  the  world  ;  daily  work 
men  are  unearthing  some  relic  of  the  past,  and  if 
our  scientific  societies  would  keep  pace  with  the 
development  of  this  country  they  should  appoint  a 
small  party  of  qualified  men  to  travel  over  this  road 
with  the  advanced  engineers." 

Let  our  American  authors  visit  and  investigate 

o 

for  themselves  such  ruins  as  Tula,  Teotihuacan, 
Xochicalco,  Papantla,  Cholula,  Mitla,  Mayapan, 
Ake,  Chichen-Itza,  Xabali,  Labria,  Uxmal,  Palen- 
que,  Xibalba,  and  many  others  less  noted,  but 
which  the  future  may  prove  to  be  equally  interest 
ing  and  important,  ere  they  push  aside  all  tradition 
and  sculpture  testimony  with  a  flourish  of  their  pen. 
The  views  of  many  will  be  modified,  the  field  of  all 
students  of  history  enlarged,  while  the  world,  espe 
cially  in  coming  generations,  will  be  made  wiser  by 
the  entrance  of  every  honest  and  patient  investi 
gator  into  this  very  broad  and  exceedingly  rich 
field.  We  are  very  glad  to  lean  upon  others  for 
such  help  from  these  sources,  as  we  have  neither 
the  time  nor  the  fitness  for  the  necessary  original 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  23 

search.  Due  to  the  patient  perseverance  of  not  a 
few  in  studying  these  picture  paintings  and  the 
traditions  of  the  natives,  we  have  had  access,  in  the 
preparation  of  these  lectures,  to  such  valuable  works 
as  the  following : 

1.  Four  voluminous  letters  written  by  the  famous  conqueror, 
Ferdinand  Cortez,  to  Charles  V,  King  of  Spain,  in  which  he 
gives  his  own  account   of  the  conquest,  and   much  valuable 
information    concerning  primitive  Mexico  and   the   Mexicans. 
These  letters  were  published  in  Spanish,  Latin,  Tuscan,  and 
other  languages  of  Europe,  the  first  copies  appearing  in  Seville 
in  1522. 

2.  Bernal  Diaz,  one  of  Cortez's  soldiers,  wrote  a  book  en 
titled  Historia  Verdadera  de  la  Conquista  de  Nueva  Espana, 
which  was  published  in  Madrid  in   1632.     Though  only  a  sol 
dier,  he  proved  to  be  quite  an  historian,  especially  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Church  in  whose  interests  he  wrote.     His  success  in  mak 
ing  the  Mexican    side  of  his  picture  as  dark  as  possible  and 
glorifying  the  part  which  the  "  Holy  Catholic  Church  "  took  in 
the  conquest  is  certainly  remarkable.     This  work  has  been  re 
produced  several  times  in  various  languages. 

3.  "  The  Anonymous  Conqueror  "  is  the  name  given  to  the 
author  of  a  brief  but  interesting  work  called  Relatione  d' Accone 
cose  delta  Nuova  Spagna,  etc.  (the  report  of  a  gentleman  who 
attended  Ferdinand  Cortez).     He  confines  himself  chiefly  to  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people,  their  temples  and  antiqui 
ties. 

4.  La  Historia  de  los  Indios  de  Nueva  Espana,  by  Moto- 
linia,  his  real  name  being  Toribio  de  Benavente.     He  was  one 
of  the  first  twelve  Franciscan  monks  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  natives,  by  whom  he  was  given  the  Mexican  name  of  Moto- 
linia.     He  explains  their  ancient  religious  customs,  etc.     This 
is  an  exceedingly  rare  book,  but   it  is  quoted   extensively  by 
Mexican  authors  and  a  few  American  authors  of  modern  times. 


24  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

5.  Bernardino  de  Sahagun   in  the  sixteenth  century  wrote 
Historia  General  de  las   Casas  de  Nueva  Espana,  and   his 
three  volumes   were  reproduced  in  Mexico  in    1829.     He  also 
wrote  twelve  large  volumes  concerning  the  Mexican  language, 
the  geography,  the  religion,  the  political   and  natural  history  of 
the  Mexicans.     He  was  a  Franciscan,  and  devoted  fifty  years  of 
his  life  to  preaching  and  teaching  among  the  natives. 

6.  Jose  de  Acosta,  a  Jesuit  father,  published  a  work  of  great 
literary  merit  in  Seville  in  1589.     It  was  entitled  Historia  Nat 
ural  y  Moral  de  las  Indias.     It  was  reproduced  in  Barcelona 
in    1591,  in  French,  at  Paris,  in  1600,  and   afterward,  I  under 
stand,  in  other  languages  of  Europe. 

7.  Fernando  de  Alva  Ixtlilxochitl  was   a   noble    Indian   of 
Tezcoco  and  a  direct  descendant  of  Coanacotzin,  last  king  of 
Acolhuacan.     By  request  of  the  viceroy  he  wrote  four  valuable 
works  :    i.  Historia  de  Nueva  Espana ;  2.  Historia  Chichi- 
meca  ;  3.  Historia  del  Reino  de  Tezcoco ;  and  4.  La  Historia 
de  los  Toltecos,  etc.     Don  Fernando  had  the  advantage  of  hav 
ing  followed    other   historians    in    his    own    family  who    had 
scrupulously  guarded  and  carefully  studied  a  full  collection  of 
picture  paintings. 

8.  Bartolome  de  Las  Casas,  a  Dominican  and  first  bishop  of 
Chiapas,  was,  perhaps,  the  best  friend  which  the    Indians  had 
among  the  early  Spanish  missionaries.     He  published  his  first 
work  in  1552,  in  which  he  complains  bitterly  of  Spanish  cru 
elty  to  the  Indians  and  throws  much  light  on  the  ancient  his 
tory  of  the  country.     This  and  others  of  his  later  works  were 
published  in  several  languages  of  Europe,  in  some  cases  as  a 
matter  of  hatred  to  the  Spaniards.     It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
some  valuable  manuscripts  by  this  same  author,  one  of  which  is 
said  to  contain  830  pages,  should  have  been  hidden  under  the 
dust  of  ages  in  old  libraries  of  Valladolid,  Madrid,  and  Amster 
dam.     If  ever  given  to   the    world  they  will,    perhaps,  throw 
additional  light  on  the  Indian  question  of  Chiapas  and  Guate 
mala. 

9.  Antonio    de    Herrera  wrote    Historia     General  de  los 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  25 

Hcchosde  los  Castellanos,  etc.,  giving  eight  decades  of  Ameri 
can  history  beginning  from  the  year  1492,  first  printed  in 
Madrid,  i6oi,and  afterward  republished  in  different  langages 
and  places  of  the  continent.  Senor  Herrera  has  the  credit  of 
being  both  candid  and  judicious.  In  ancient  history  he  fol 
lows  Acosta  and  Gomara,  about  1614. 

10.  Juan  de  Torquemada,  a  Franciscan  Spaniard,  published 
his  Monarquia  Indiana  in  Madrid,  in  three  great  folio  volumes. 
It  is  considered  by  all  the  most  complete,  up  to  its  date,  on  the 
antiquity  of  Mexico.     Torquemada  went,  when  a  mere  youth, 
to  the  country,  learned  the  indigenous  languages,  lived  nearly 
fifty  years  among  the  Indians,  and  after  collecting  a  large  num 
ber  of  ancient  pictures  and  manuscripts  devoted  some  twenty 
years  to  the  preparation  of  his  work. 

11.  Carlos  de  Siguenza  y  Gongora,  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Mexico  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  made  a  large  and  choice  collection  of  ancient  pictures 
and  manuscripts,  and   applied   himself  with  great  diligence  to 
the  antiquity  of  his  country.     In  his  Mexican  Cyclography  he 
adjusted  their  ancient  epochs  to  ours,  and  explained  the  method 
they   used    to    count    centuries,    years,    and    months.     In    his 
History  of  the  ChicJiimecan  Empire  he  explained  the  migra 
tion  of  the  first  colonists  from   Asia  to  America,  and  leading 
events  of  the  most  ancient  nations  of  Anahuac.     In  his  lengthy 
discourse  on  the  Gospel  in  Anahuac,   he  declared   his  belief 
that  St.  Thomas  was  the  first  to  bring  the  "  glad  tidings  "  to 
the  Indians  of  Mexico.     He  bases  this  belief  on  tradition  and 
the  existence  of  the  cross  in  so  many  parts  of  the  country  prior 
to  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  finding  of  the  cross  on  this  continent  has  given  rise 
to  great  differences  of  opinion.  Some  believe  it,  as  did  all 
Spanish  authors  at  and  since  the  time  of  the  conquest,  as  an 
evidence  of  the  preaching  of  Christianity  in  remote  times,  and 
that  the  Gospel  became  mixed  with  the  indigenous  rites  of  the 
country.  Others,  however,  consider  it  as  an  astronomical  sign 
or  an  indication  of  the  four  points  of  the  compass  or  the  four 


26  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

seasons  of  the  year.  Others,  again,  say  it  is  a  figure  as  familiar 
as  the  Greek  cross  in  the  Old  World.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  cross  has  been  an  object  of  worship  among  ancient 
peoples  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  In  Egypt,  in  China,  in  Tar- 
tary,  among  the  Druids  and  among  the  Goths  we  find  the 
cross.  Hence  its  existence  does  not  necessarily  imply  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel.  On  this  continent  it  was  found  in 
Canada,  in  Peru,  on  the  island  of  Cozumel,  in  New  Granada, 
in  Palenque,  in  Brazil,  in  Paraguay,  and  in  Teotihuacnn — places 
so  scattered  over  the  continent  as  to  make  it  quite  improbable, 
if  not  impossible,  that  some  Christian  Quetzalcoatl  introduced 
them  into  all  these  places. 

Then,  again,  the  cross  found  in  ancient  Mexican  ruins  is  not 
the  Latin  cross,  for  it  generally  has  the  four  arms  equal  in  size, 
like  the  Greek  cross,  though  sometimes  as  an  astronomical 
sign  they  seem  to  follow  the  shape  of  the  St.  Andrew  cross  (x). 
Besides  this,  as  Chavero  remarks  (in  Mexico  A  Traves  de  los 
Siglos,  p.  379),  attention  should  be  fixed  on  this  fact  :  the 
Christian  religion  differs  from  all  others  in  having  the  cross  as 
a  symbol  of  redemption,  or  the  symbol  of  a  crucified  Saviour 
for  the  salvation  of  man.  But  the  Mexicans  neither  had  the 
crucifix  nor  was  the  cross  in  any  sense  a  sign  of  redemption, 
although  at  times  it  was  doubtless  worshiped  as  a  deity,  and  at 
other  times  it  was  simply  a  symbol  in  chronology. 

In  his  Genealogy  of  Mexican  Kings,  Siguenza  established 
an  unbroken  line  back  to  the  seventh  century.  Unfortunately 
these  and  other  important  productions  were  never  printed,  and 
the  manuscripts  were  lost  through  the  negligence  of  his  heirs. 
In  contemporaneous  writers,  notably  Gemelli,  Betancourt,  and 
Florencia,  we  find  preserved  many  extracts  from  this  learned 
professor. 

12.  An  enterprising  Italian,  from  Milan,  by  the  name  of 
Lorenzo  Benaduci  Boturini,  reached  Mexico  in  1736.  For  eight 
years  he  made  most  diligent  search  into  its  antiquity.  He 
studied  the  indigenous  languages,  lived  among  the  Indians,  ob 
tained  many  of  their  ancient  pictures  and  copies  of  their  old 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  27 

manuscripts.  His  collection  of  such  was  second  only  to  thai  of 
Siguenza.  When,  however,  he  was  about  ready  to  begin  the 
writing  of  his  History  his  entire  literary  estate  was  confiscated 
by  the  colonial  government.  On  his  return  to  Europe,  and  re 
lying  largely  upon  his  memory,  he  published  (Madrid,  1746)  an 
outline  of  his  contemplated  History.  This  skeleton  makes  the 
student  of  Mexican  history  deeply  deplore  the  atrocious  con 
duct  of  the  Spanish  viceroy. 

Besides  these  and  many  other  Spanish  and  Mexican  authors 
there  are  several  anonymous  works  in  Mexican  languages  on 
the  Toltecs  and  Aztecs,  with  historic  matter  bearing  on  their 
languages,  pilgrimages,  wars,  and  other  events,  from  the  early 
part  of  the  eleventh  well  down  into  the  sixteenth  century.  To 
these  might  be  added  a  long  list  of  French,  English,  Italian, 
Dutch,  Flemish,  and  German  writers,  from  whom  our  more 
modern  authors  have  been  able  to  draw. 

13.  The  Travels  of  Thomas  Gage  were  published  in   Paris 
in  1625.     At  an  early  age,  on  account  of  political  disturbances 
in  Great  Britain,  he  was  sent  to  Spain  for  his  education,  after 
which  he  became  a  Dominican,  and  was  sent  as  a  missionary 
to  the  New  World.     His  travels  are  very  interesting  reading, 
and  in  some  cases  his  plain  manner  of  speaking  the  truth  con 
cerning  the  corrupt  lives  of  the  priests  in  Mexico  has  brought 
upon  him  the  criticism  of  more  careful  Church  authors.     Pos 
sibly  this  is  the  reason  why  Clavigero  does  not  like  him.     We 
shall,  however,  have  occasion  to  refer  to  him  frequently. 

14.  Notwithstanding  the  mistakes  of  Dr.  William  Robertson, 
already  referred  to,  and  Clavigero's  severe    strictures  on  him, 
we  cannot  refrain  from  recommending  his  History  of  America, 
published  in  London  in  1777,  from  which  we  have  received  no 
inconsiderable  aid. 

15.  Perhaps    the    most    popular  of   all    works,  prior   to   the 
present  century,  and  certainly  the  one  most  frequently  quoted 
by  modern  authors,  is  the  History  of  Mexico,  by  the  Jesuit, 
Francisco  Javier  Clavigero.     This  well-known  Mexican  writer 
was  born   in   the  Port  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1731  (not  in   1720,  as 


28  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

most  American  encyclopedias  have  it).  His  parents  were 
Spaniards  of  royal  blood,  and  his  cousin  one  of  Mexico's  rulers 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Puebla  when  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  after  a  course 
in  philosophy  and  theology  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew  under 
a  German  Jesuit.  Later  he  acquired  a  mastery  of  Mexicano, 
Otomf,  and  Misteco,  besides  some  knowledge  of  twenty  other 
indigenous  languages  of  the  country.  He  lived  among  the 
Indians  for  thirty-six  years,  and  became  familiar  with  all  their 
traditions  and  a  ready  interpreter.  Together  with  all  Spanish 
Jesuits  he  was  expatriated  in  1767,  at  which  time  he  went  to 
reside  in  Italy.  Here  he  continued  his  study  of  Mexican  his 
tory,  obtaining  access  through  brothers  of  the  order  to  all  the 
more  important  libraries  of  Europe.  His  work  was  first  writ 
ten  in  Spanish,  but  for  political  reasons  which  made  its  publi 
cation  impossible  in  Spain  he  was  obliged  to  translate  it  into 
Italian,  and  the  first  published  edition  of  his  work  appeared  in 
Bologna,  1780.  It  was  soon  after  published  in  French,  Ger 
man,  and  English.  The  year  of  his  death,  1787,  the  first 
English  edition  appeared  in  London,  and  in  1806  another 
English  edition  was  printed  in  Richmond,  Va.  No  library  on 
Mexico  is  complete  without  this  work  in  some  one  of  the 
languages  in  which  it  has  appeared,  and  we  shall  have  occa 
sion  to  quote  frequently  from  this  source. 

16.  Baron  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander  Von  Humboklt, 
one  of  the  greatest  naturalists  of  modern  times,  after  extensive 
scientific  explorations  on  the  continent,  was  sent  by  his  govern 
ment  on  a  similar  errand  to  the  north  of  Asia.  Later  he  went 
to  South  America,  and  in  1803  to  Mexico.  Though  he  only 
visited  such  points  as  were  of  easy  access  from  the  capital,  he 
nevertheless  so  improved  and  utilized  the  labors  of  others  that 
the  whole  territory  bears  the  impress  of  his  mighty  mind.  His 
work,  A  Political  Essay  on  the  Kingdom  of  New  Spain, 
though  now  chiefly  useful  as  giving  statistical  information  re 
garding  the  country  previous  to  and  at  the  period  of  his  visit, 
must  be  taken,  as  a  later  writer  truly  says,  as  the  point 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  29 

d'appui  for  the  works  of  all  travelers  coining  after  him. 
Though  perhaps  he  did  not  discover  here  much  that  was  new, 
or  throw  additional  light  on  the  history  of  the  people,  he  yet 
brought  afresh  to  the  notice  of  the  world  the  writings  of  the 
old  historians,  revived  an  interest  in  archaeology,  and  set  before 
all  Europe  the  great  natural  resources  of  a  country  then 
inhabited  by  an  oppressed  people.  His  books  have  been  a 
mine  of  wealth  for  subsequent  historians,  and  have  indeed 
served  not  only  for  reference,  but  as  a  very  material  por 
tion  of  their  productions.  Besides  the  Political  Essay  above 
referred  to  (published  in  Paris,  1811,  in  two  folio  volumes),  his 
Geography  of  the  New  Continent  (Examcn  Critique  de  Ihis- 
toire  de  la  Geographie  dii  Nouveau  Continent),  in  five  vol 
umes,  was  completed  in  Paris  in  1839.  Both  these  and  other 
works  of  this  master  pen  have  been  translated  and  published 
in  London  and  New  York.  His  residence  in  Mexico  was  only 
for  one  short  year,  and  yet  such  was  the  impression  made  by 
his  visit,  and  such  the  high  regard  in  which  he  is  still  held,  that 
the  city  government  of  the  capital  recently  marked  the  front  of 
the  house  where  he  resided  with  an  elegantly  inscribed  tablet. 
A  five  minutes'  walk  from  the  headquarters  of  the  Methodist 
Mission  takes  one  to  the  spot. 

17.  Our  great  American  historian,  William  H.  Prescott,  first 
published   his  flowery  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico  in 
1843.      Within    a   year   the   entire    work   was    reproduced    in 
Spanish  in   the  city  of  Mexico,  with   valuable  annotations  by 
Lucas  Alaman.      Another  Mexican  edition  followed  later  with 
notes  by  Dr.  Ramirez.      Both  of  these  writers  try  to  correct 
some  of  the  mistakes  of  Prescott.      Few  historians  have  made 
more   interesting  reading   than   Prescott,  but   he  was  a  non 
resident  historian  and  depended  chiefly  on   such  books   and 
manuscripts  as  had  run  the  gauntlet  of  State  and  Church  crit 
icism  in  Spain  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
Nevertheless,  no  one  can  afford  to  pass  by  this  work. 

1 8.  Lord  Kingsborough's  Antiquities  of  Mexico,   in  nine 
monumental  folio  volumes,  was  published  in  London  between 


30  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

1831  and  1848.  This  is  the  most  beautiful  and  extensively 
illustrated  work  extant  on  Mexico,  but  its  price,  ^100,  puts  it 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  public  in  general.  Only  three  copies 
exist  in  Mexico.  In  this  country  there  is  one  copy  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  another  in  the  Bancroft  Library,  and, 
doubtless,  a  few  other  copies  of  which  the  lecturer  knows  not. 
The  entire  edition  consisted  of  only  five  hundred  copies,  and  is 
now  out  of  print. 

19.  In  our  own  times  the  exhaustive  work  of  Hubert  Howe 
Bancroft,  of  San  Francisco,  takes  the  lead.  Mr.  Bancroft  has 
probably  the  largest  and  most  valuable  library  on  Mexican  and 
cognate  subjects  in  existence.  His  agents  in  America  and 
Europe  have  expended  over  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars  in 
the  collection  of  some  three  thousand  book  volumes,  in  print 
and  manuscripts,  about  ten  thousand  pamphlets,  and  files  of 
official  newspapers  without  number.  In  the  Preface  of  his 
first  volume  this  voluminous  author  says :  "  I  have  all  the 
standard  histories  and  printed  chronicles  of  the  earliest  times, 
together  with  all  the  works  of  writers  who  have  extended  their 
investigations  to  the  events  and  developments  of  later  years. 
On  the  shelves  of  my  library  are  found  the  various  Colecciones 
de  Docunientos,  filled  with  precious  historical  papers  from  the 
Spanish  and  Mexican  archives,  all  that  were  consulted  in  man 
uscript  by  Robertson,  Prescott,  and  other  able  writers,  with 
thousands  equally  important  that  were  unknown  to  them.  My 
store  of  manuscript  material  is  rich  both  in  originals  and 
copies,  including  the  treasures  secured  during  a  long  experience 
by  such  collectors  as  Jose  Maria  Andrade  and  Jos6  Fernando 
Ramirez  ;  a  copy  of  the  famous  Archive  General  de  Mexico,  in 
thirty-two  volumes;  the  autograph  originals  of  Carlos  Maiia 
Bustamente's  historical  writings,  in  about  fifty  volumes,  con 
taining  much  not  found  in  his  printed  wrorks ;  the  original 
records  of  the  earliest  Mexican  councils  of  the  Church,  with 
many  ecclesiastical  and  missionary  chronicles  not  extant  in 
print  ;  and,  finally,  a  large  amount  of  copies  of  material  on 
special  topics  drawn  from  different  archives  expressly  for  my 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.  31 

work."  Mexico  is  but  one  part  of  the  great  American  question 
treated  by  Mr.  Bancroft,  and  the  fourteen  large  volumes  which 
we  possess  are  but  a  fraction  of  his  extensive  work.  He  cer 
tainly  deserves  due  credit  for  his  immense  research,  whatever 
may  be  the  opinion  of  critical  judges  on  his  painstaking  and 
thoroughness.  It  is  a  marvel  to  us  how  any  one  man  could 
produce  so  much  in  a  single  lifetime. 

20.  A  lamented  friend,  graduate  of  Drew  Theological  Sem 
inary,  and,  later,  professor  in   the  Ohio  State  University,  John 
T.   Short,   published    in    1880   (Harper    Brothers)    The  North 
Americans  of  Antiquity,  which  gives  valuable  information  on 
one  phase  of  our  subject. 

21.  Life  in  Mexico,  published  in  Boston  in  1843  by  Madame 
Calderon  de  la  Barca,  wife  of  the  first  Spanish  ambassador  to 
Mexico,  after  the  mother  country  recognized  the  latter's  inde 
pendence,  as  the   title  implies,  throws  much  light   on  another 
phase  of  the  subject,  and  is  regarded  as  a    most   admirable 
portraiture  of  Mexican  domestic  habits  and  customs. 

22.  Brantz   Mayer,  at  one  time  secretary  of  the  American 
legation  in  Mexico,  published  between  1843  and  1853  four  dif 
ferent  works,  of  which  the  most  valuable  is  Mexico:  Aztec, 
Spanish,  and  Republican,  which  appeared  in  1850  and  covers 
the  period  of  the  Mexican  war. 

23.  Dr.  Gorham  D.  Abbott,  principal  of   the    Spingler  In 
stitute,  New  York,  made  a  study  of  the  Great  Question  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Great  Eastern 
Question,  at  that  time  agitating  all  Europe,  for  the   transit  of 
the  commerce   of   Asia    between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Persian   Gulf,  and,  as  a  result,  published  his  Mexico  and  the 
United  States,  in  1869.    His  book  is  an  important  contribution 
to  the  political  and  military  history  of  the  country,  especially 
from  1824  to  1859. 

24.  In    1846   the    Hon.   Waddy   Thompson,   after   a    term 
of  service  as  United  States  minister,  published  his  Recollections 
of  Mexico.     His  strictures  on  what  he  is  pleased  to  call  the 
"  disgusting   mummeries    and    impostures "    of    the    Roman 


32  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Catholic  Church,  "  which  degrade  the  Christian  religion  into 
an  absurd,  ridiculous,  and  venal  superstition,"  are  almost  as 
true  to-day  as  they  were  forty-five  years  ago.  But  his  south 
ern  depreciation  of  "  the  poor  and  motherless  black  Indian  " 
would  doubtless  undergo  a  change  if  he  could  have  seen 
Benito  Juarez,  a  pure  Indian,  rising  up  as  the  human  sav 
iour  of  Mexico's  millions  from  the  degradation  of  that 
"  absurd,  ridiculous,  and  venal  superstition." 

25.  In  1855  to  1856  and  1859  Robert  A.  Wilson  published 
three  different  works.  The  last,  entitled  Mexico:  Its  Peasants 
and  Its  Priests,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  interesting. 

More  recent  publications  are  numerous,  and  we  have  only 
time  to  mention  Frost's  Pictorial  History  of  Mexico  and  the 
Mexican  War  (Richmond,  1848)  ;  Our  Sister  Republic, 
Alberts.  Evans  (Hartford,  1870);  Our  Next-Door  Neighbor, 
by  the  lamented  Gilbert  Haven  (Harpers,  1875)  ;  Travels  in 
Mexico  (Boston,  1883),  F.  A.  Ober ;  Mexico  To-day,  Thomas 
Nuett  Brocklehurst  (London,  1883)  ;  Native  Religions  of 
Mexico  and  Peril  (Scribner,  1884),  by  Dr.  Albert  Reville,  trans 
lated  by  P.  H.  Wicksteed;  Aztec  Land  (Boston,  1890),  by 
Maturin  M.  Ballou  ;  a  number  of  valuable  reports  from  the 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  Washington,  and,  finally, 
Mexico  in  Transition  (Hunt  &  Eaton,  1892),  by  Dr.  William 
Butler.  Our  relation  to  the  author  forbids  our  saying  too  much 
of  this  last  work,  but  we  are  authorized  to  quote  freely  from  it 
as  we  proceed.  The  many  Spanish  and  Mexican  authors  can 
not  be  mentioned  here  for  want  of  space.  The  field  is  an  im 
mense  one  ;  the  resources  of  information  are  without  number; 
we  earnestly  trust  that  wisdom  may  be  given  to  so  present 
the  subject  as  to  merit  your  kind  attention  during  the  few 
days  we  spend  together  in  these  classic  halls. 


LECTURE  II. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS. 
4 


LECTURE  II. 
ORIGIN   OF   THE   MEXICANS. 

NOT  less  than  sixteen  distinct  theories  are  ad 
vocated    concerning    the    origin    of  the    first 
inhabitants    of    this    western    continent.      "  From 
whence  did  they  come  ?  "  has  been  asked  again  and 
again,  and  received  many  different  answers. 

The  theory  claiming  an  autochthonic  origin  for 
these  most  ancient  inhabitants  has  had  able  ethnol 
ogists  among  its  advocates.  But  with  Mr.  Bancroft, 
who  had  carefully  studied  all  published  arguments, 
we  agree  that  to  express  belief  in  a  theory  incapable 
of  proof  appears  to  be  idle.  "  Indeed,  such  belief 
is  not  belief;  it  is  merely  acquiescing  in  or  accept 
ing  a  hypothesis  or  tradition  until  the  contrary 
is  proved."*  Those  who  advocate  this  theory  are 
of  two  classes,  evolutionists  and  believers  in  sep 
arate,  multiplied  creations,  this  latter  class  claiming 
as  many  Adams  and  Eves  as  there  are  different 
species  of  the  human  genera.  Some  of  this  school, 
however,  in  advancing  this  theory  hasten  to  add  : 
"  We  do  not  at  all  derogate  from  God's  greatness, 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  131. 


36  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

nor  in  any  way  dishonor  the  sacred  evidence  given 
us  by  his  servants." 

The  antiquity  of  the  American  race  seems  to 
have  induced  many  to  accept  one  of  the  above 
leadings. 

Professor  John  T.  Short  well  says  :  "  We  have  seen 
that  as  yet  no  truly  scientific  proof  of  man's  great 
antiquity  in  America  exists.  This  conclusion  is  con 
curred  in  by  most  eminent  authorities.  At  present 
we  are  probably  not  warranted  in  claiming  for  him 
a  much  longer  residence  on  this  continent  than  that 
assigned  him  by  Sir  John  Lubbock,  namely,  three 
thousand  years.  Future  research  may  develop  the 
fact  that  man  is  as  old  here  as  in  Europe,  and  that 
he  was  contemporaneous  with  the  mastodon.  As 
the  case  stands  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge  it 
furnishes  strong  presumptive  evidence  that  man  is 
not  autochthonic  here,  but  exotic,  having  originated 
in  the  Old  World,  perhaps  thousands  of  years  prior 
to  reaching  the  New." 

Professor  Joseph  Henry,  in  Smithsonian  Report, 
1866,  expresses  himself  as  follows: 

"  The  spontaneous  generation  of  either  plants  or 
animals,  although  a  legitimate  subject  of  scientific 
inquiry,  is  as  yet  an  unverified  hypothesis.  If,  how 
ever,  we  assume  the  fact  that  a  living  being  will  be 
spontaneously  produced  when  all  the  physical  con- 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  37 

ditions  necessary  to  its  existence  are  present,  we 
must  allow  that  in  the  case  of  man,  with  his  com 
plex  and  refined  organization,  the  fortuitous  assem 
bly  of  the  multiform  conditions  required  for  his 
appearance  would  be  extremely  rare,  and  from  the 
doctrine  of  probabilities  could  scarcely  occur  more 
than  at  one  time  and  in  one  place  on  our  planet  ; 
and  further,  that  this  place  would  most  probably  be 
somewhere  in  the  northern  temperate  zone.  Again, 
the  Caucasian  variety  of  man  presents  the  highest 
physical  development  of  the  human  family;  and  as 
we  depart  either  to  the  north  or  south,  from  the 
latitude  assumed  as  the  origin  of  the  human  race  in 
Asia,  we  meet  with  a  lower  type,  until  at  the  north 
we  encounter  the  Eskimos,  and  at  the  south  the 
Bosjesman  and  the  Tierra  del  Fuegian.  The  deriva 
tion  of  ithese  varieties  from  the  original  stock  is 
philosophically  explained  on  the  principle  of  the 
variety  in  the  offspring  of  the  same  parents,  and 
the  better  adaptation  and  consequent  change  of  life 
of  some  of  these  to  the  new  conditions  of  existence 
in  a  more  northern  or  southern  latitude." 

The  most  celebrated  advocate  of  the  indigenous 
theory  is  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Morton,  of  Philadelphia, 
who  published  his  Crania  Americana  in  1839.  His 
conclusions,  as  quoted  by  Short, *  are  (i)  "That 

*  North  Americans  of  Antiquity,  p.  130. 


38  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  American  race  differs  essentially  from  all 
others,  not  excepting  the  Mongolian;"  (2)  "  That 
the  American  nations,  excepting  the  polar  tribes, 
are  one  race  and  one  species ; "  and  (3)  "  That 
the  cranial  remains  discovered  in  the  mounds, 
from  Peru  to  Wisconsin,  belong  to  the  same  race, 
and  probably  to  the  Toltecan  family."  It  may  be 
rather  strained  to  set  these  crumbling  crania  down 
as  Toltecan,  but  in  view  of  such  airy  conclusions 
the  following  observations  of  the  learned  Retzins, 
in  Smithsonian  Report  for  1859,  are  significant: 
"  This  autnor  (Dr.  Morton),  who  has  given  us  such 
numerous  and  valuable  facts,  as  well  as  the  lin 
guists  who  have  studied  these  American  languages 
with  indefatigable  zeal,  have  arrived  at  the  conclu 
sion  that  both  race  and  language  in  the  New  World 
are  unique.  I  am  obliged  to  avow  thatsjthe  facts 
advanced  by  Morton  himself,  and  that  the  study 
of  numerous  skulls  with  which  he  has  enriched 
the  Museum  of  Stockholm,  have  conducted  me 
to  a  wholly  different  result.  I  can  only  explain 
the  fact  by  surmising  that  this  remarkable  man 
has  allowed  the  views  of  the  naturalist  to  be 
warped  by  his  linguistic  researches."  After  show 
ing  how  Dr.  Morton's  published  plates  contradict 
his  theory  Retzins  continues:  "Conclusive,  how 
ever,  as  the  plates  are,  I  should  scarcely  have  ven- 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  39 

tured  to  advance  these  remarks  if  the  rich  series 
of  our  own  collection  and  the  numerous  and  ex 
cellent  figures  of  Blumenbach,  Sandifort,  Van  der 
Hoeven,  etc.,  did  not  declare  in  favor  of  my 
opinion." 

Latham,  in  his  Natural  History  of  the  Varieties 
of  Man  (p.  452),  quotes  Morton's  tables  to  show 
the  fallacy  of  his  (Morton's)  conclusions. 

The  color  and  stature  arguments,  so  often  ap 
pealed  to,  do  not  substantiate  Dr.  Morton's  theory. 
Prichard,  in  Researches  into  the  PJiysical  History  of 
Mankind  (fourth  edition,  1 841,  vol.  i,  p.  269),  as  quoted 
by  Professor  Short,  remarks :  "  It  will  be  easy  to 
prove  that  the  American  races,  instead  of  display 
ing  a  uniformity  of  color  in  all  climates,  show  nearly 
as  great  a  variety  in  this  respect  as  the  nations  of 
the  old  continent ;  that  there  are  among  them 
white  races  with  a  florid  complexion  inhabiting  tem 
perate  regions,  and  tribes  black  or  of  very  dark  hue 
in  low  and  intertropical  countries  ;  that  their  stature, 
figure,  and  countenance  are  almost  equally  diversi 
fied."  All  of  which  is  confirmed  by  travel  and 
observation  in  Mexico  alone,  where  one  finds  the 
Zufii  and  the  Pinto,  the  Yaqui  and  the  Yucateco, 
with  their  marvelous  dissimilarity  in  color  and  in 
stature. 

The    unparalleled    diversity    of  language    which 


40  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

meets  the  philologist  everywhere  on  this  continent 
is  certainly  against  the  idea  of  the  ethnic  unity  of 
ancient  American  peoples.  Mr.  Bancroft  claims  one 
thousand  three  hundred  languages  and  dialects  for 
the  New  World,  and  he  has  classified  six  hundred 
of  them,  thirty-seven  of  which  are  spoken  in  Mex 
ico  to-day. 

Professor  Short  adds  :  "  It  is  true  that  the  Amer 
ican  languages  present  a  few  features  quite  peculiar 
to  themselves,  but  as  language  is  never  constant  it 
is  not  a  pyramid  with  its  unchanging  architectural 
plan,  but  it  is  a  plant  which  passes  through  such 
transitions  in  the  process  of  its  growth  as  to  lose 
entirely  some  of  the  elements  which  it  possessed  at 
first ;  so  we  may  as  reasonably  expect  that  in  the 
course  of  time  certain  peculiarities  incident  to  cer 
tain  climatic  conditions,  certain  phases  of  nature, 
and  certain  types  of  civilization  should  develop 
themselves  as  distinguishing  features  of  the  speech 
of  the  continent.  The  very  fact  that  language  is 
unstable — is  a  matter  of  growth — renders  the  argu 
ment  that  these  peculiarities  indicate  unity  of  the 
American  race  valueless;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  fact  that  here  we  have  a  greater  number  and 
variety  of  languages  than  is  to  be  found  in  any  of 
the  other  grand  divisions  of  the  earth  is  strong 
evidence  of  a  diversity  more  radical  than  that  which 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  41 

simply  arises  from  tribal  affiliations.  In  view  of 
the  wide  differences  existing  between  the  native 
Americans  themselves,  in  every  feature  which  ad 
mits  of  being  subjected  to  a  scientific  test,  we  are 
forced  to  the  conclusion,  solely  resting  on  the  evi 
dence  in  the  case,  that  the  theory  of  American 
ethnic  unity  is  a  delusion,  an  infatuating  theory 
which  served  only  to  blind  its  advocates  as  to  the 
plain  facts,  and  led  them  into  grave  errors,  which 
will  become  all  the  more  palpable  as  scientific  inves 
tigation  progresses. 

"As  yet  no  substantial  reason  for  considering  the 
ancient  occupant  of  this  continent  as  peculiar  in 
himself,  and  as  unlike  the  rest  of  mankind,  has  been 
set  forth.  Nothing  in  the  American's  physical  or 
ganization  points  to  an  origin  different  from  that 
to  which  each  of  the  species  of  the  genus  homo 
may  be  assigned.  Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in 
the  diverse  origin  of  the  black  and  white  races,  the 
separate  creation  theory,  in  so  far  as  it  maintains 
that  the  Creator  originated  upon  the  soil  of  this 
continent  a  peculiar  and  separate  race  of  men, 
must,  in  the  eyes  of  this  age  of  criticism,  lack 
evidence  and  be  assigned  to  its  place  with  thou 
sands  of  others  which  from  time  immemorial  have 
been  contributing  to  the  construction  of  a  founda 
tion  reef  which  will  ultimately  rise  like  a  bold  head- 


42  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

land  above  the  dark  waters  of  uncertainty  into  the 
realm  of  truth." 

Even  Mr.  Darwin  (in  Descent  of  Man,  vol.  i,  p.  188) 
and  Professor  Haeckel,  than  whom  there  could  be 
no  more  celebrated  representatives  of  the  develop 
ment  school,  object  decidedly  to  the  theory  of  the 
autochthonic  origin  of  the  ancient  American  fami 
lies.  And  Mr.  H.  Tuttle,  in  Origin  and  Antiquity 
of  Physical  Man  Scientifically  Considered,  says  :  "If 
a  species  or  variety  of  the  genus  Jwmo  sprang  up  in 
Europe  and  another  in  America  by  agency  of  con 
ditions  existing  in  these  localities,  it  would  be  be 
yond  probability  that  they  should  both  be  formed 
on  the  same  plan." 

Baron  Humbolclt  thinks  that  not  only  the  Red 
Indians,  but  the  Toltecs  and  Aztecs  also,  were 
of  Asiatic  origin.*  And  Mr.  Tylor,  in  Anahuac 
(London,  1861,  p.  104),  says:  "On  the  whole,  the 
most  probable  view  of  the  origin  of  the  Mexican 
tribes  seems  to  be  the  one  ordinarily  held,  that  they 
really  came  from  the  Old  World,  bringing  with  them 
several  legends,  evidently  the  same  as  the  histories 
recorded  in  the  Book  of  Genesis." 

It  seems  to  us,  in  common  with  Professor  Short, 
that  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  primitive 
"  Americans  owe  their  origin  to  a  special  act  of 

*  Essai  Polit^  vol.  i,  p.  79,  Paris,  1811. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  43 

creation."  Indeed,  the  best  of  writers  on  American 
ethnology  and  antiquities  not  only  reject  this  "  spe 
cial  creation  "  theory,  but  also  the  theory  of  evolu 
tion,  declaring  "if  they  originated  by  the  process  of 
development  (for  which  there  is  no  sufficient  evi 
dence)  that  it  was  not  upon  the  American  conti 
nent." 

To  our  mind  there  is  no  doubt  involving  the  Old 
World  origin  of  the  Americans.  From  whence 
they  came  or  to  what  particular  people  or  peoples 
they  owed  their  birth  we  may  not  be  able  clearly 
to  determine,  but  we  may  at  least  study  the  ques 
tion  with  great  interest,  and  we  believe  with 
profit,  too,  reaching,  perhaps,  the  same  conclu 
sion  that  Professor  Short  did,  namely,  "  That  view 
seems  open  to  least  objections  which  maintains 
that  the  western  continent  received  its  population 
at  a  comparatively  early  period  in  the  history 
of  the  race,  before  the  peoples  of  western  Europe 
and  eastern  Asia  had  assumed  their  present  na 
tional  characteristics  or  fully  developed  their  reli 
gious  and  social  customs."  *  This  is  also  the  opin 
ion  of  most  Mexican  authors.  Senor  Ezequiel 
Uricoechea  thus  expresses  their  commonly  accepted 
view  :  "  Hence  remaining  to  us  one  primordial  ori 
gin  for  all  the  human  race,  then  the  question  is  to 

*  The  North  Americans  of  Antiquity,  p.  202. 


44  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

know  from  what  trunk  or  family  of  the  old  conti 
nent  the  new  was  populated,  or  even  vice  versa, 
which  is  also  possible,  though  improbable,  that 
from  what  we  call  the  new  the  old  continent  was 
populated.""  This  last  is  a  daring  leap  in  con 
jecture. 

As  stated  above,  we  have  found  in  our  study  of 
the  question  sixteen  different  theories  touching  the 
origin  of  the  primitive  Americans.  These  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes,  and  for  convenience'  sake 
we  designate  them  the  European,  the  African,  and 
the  Asiatic  theories. 

Of  the  European  theories  there  are  six : 

I.  The  Welsh  theory.  We  have  a  neighbor  in 
the  city  of  Mexico  whose  hair  fairly  bristles  and 
whose  eyes  dance  with  delight  whenever  he  dilates 
on  the  fact  that  before  Edward  I  perfected  the  union 
of  Wales  and  England,  begun  by  William  the  Con 
queror,  in  1170  A.  D.,  an  illustrious  Welshman  led 
a  number  of  his  countrymen  across  the  great  and 
then  unknown  Atlantic  and  discovered  America. 

This  pre-Columbian  sailor  was  named  Madoc-Ap- 
owen,  and  a  full  account  of  his  first  and  second  trans 
atlantic  voyages  is  found  in  old  Welsh  annals,  a 
translation  of  which  was  published  in  1589. 

The  story    in   substance  is  this :   Madoc  was  one 

*  Soc.  Mex.  BoL,  second  edition,  vol.  iv,  p.  128,  1854. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  45 

of  several  sons  born  to  Owen  Gwynedd,  Prince  of 
North  Wales.  After  the  father's  death  the  sons 
contended  violently  for  rulership.  Madoc,  being  of 
a  peaceful  disposition,  determined  to  sail  for  some 
unknown  country  where  he  might  dwell  in  quiet 
ness.  For  many  months  he  and  his  handful  of  fol 
lowers  sailed  westward  without  finding  a  resting 
place,  "  but  at  length  they  came  to  a  large  and 
fertile  country."  The  annals  also  state  that  Madoc 
and  a  part  of  his  men  returned  after  a  while  to 
Wales,  and  induced  a  large  number  of  their  country 
men  to  join  them  in  their  second  voyage  to  Amer 
ica.  It  is  supposed  that  they,  with  their  ten  ships, 
reached  the  colony  in  safety,  but  nothing  more  is 
said  about  them  in  these  Celtic  annals. 

The  exact  locality  of  the  colony  is  still  a  disputed 
question.  Baldwin  says,  "  Somewhere  in  the  Caro- 
linas."  But  a  noted  Welsh  historian,  Caradoc,  in 
sists  that  the  colony  was  established  in  Mexico,  and 
gives  three  reasons :  First,  the  Mexicans  believed 
that  their  ancestors  came  from  a  beautiful  country 
inhabited  by  white  people,  witness  Quetzalcoatl ; 
secondly,  they  adored  the  cross,  witness  Palenque  ; 
and,  thirdly,  that  Welsh  names  are  found  in  Mexico. 

Another  Welsh  writer  says  :  "  Moctezuma,  King, 
or  rather  Emperour,  of  Mexico,  did  recount  unto  the 
Spaniards,  at  their  first  coming,  that  his  ancestors 


46  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

came  from  a  farre  countrie,  and  were  white  people. 
Which,  conferred  with  an  ancient  chronicle,  that  I 
have  read  many  years  since,  may  be  conjectured  to 
be  a  Prince  of  Wales,  who  many  hundreth  years 
since,  with  certaine  shippes,  sayled  to  the  westwards, 
with  intent  to  make  new  discoveries."* 

Some  claim  that  the  aborigines  of  Virginia  and 
of  Guatemala  celebrated  the  memory  of  an  ancient 
hero  called  Madoc  ;  others  say  that  he  came  through 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  up  the  Mississippi  till  he 
settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio.  There  are  reports 
that  traces  of  the  Welsh  colony  and  of  their  language 
are  found  among  native  tribes  in  different  parts  of 
the  United  States.  Bancroft,  in  Native  Races 
(vol.  v,  p.  119),  publishes  a  curious  letter,  written  by 
the  Rev.  Morgan  Jones  in  1686,  in  which  he  claims 
that  when  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Tuscarora 
tribe  he  and  his  five  companions  were  about  to  be 
put  to  death,  when  he  soliloquized  aloud  in  Welsh  5 
whereupon  their  lives  were  spared. 

Lieutenant  Roberts  states  that  in  1801  an  Indian 
chief  who  spoke  Welsh  fluently  came  to  Wash 
ington.  He  claimed  that  there  was  a  tradition 
among  his  people  that  his  ancestors  came  "  from  a 
distant  country,  which  lay  far  to  the  east,  over  the 
great  waters."  The  children  of  this  tribe  were  not 

*  Hawkins  Voy.  in  Hakluyt  Soc.,  p.  in. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  47 

allowed  to  learn  any  other  tongue  till  they  were 
twelve  years  of  age.  About  forty  years  ago  two 
eminent  Welshmen  traveling  and  studying  in  Amer 
ica  "  collected  upwards  of  one  hundred  different  ac 
counts  of  Welsh  Indians." 

2.  The  Irish  theory  carries  us  back  to  the  fifth 
century,  when,  it  is  claimed,  St.  Patrick  preached 
the  Gospel  in  the  "  isles  of  America "  and  an 
Irish  colony  was  established  along  the  coast  from 
North  Carolina  to  Florida,  called  "  White  Man's 
Land,"  from  whence  some  passed  on  to  Mexico. 
But,  as  it  was  claimed  that  u  White  Man's  Land" 
was  only  "  six  days'  sail  from  Ireland,"  and  the  word 
"  America  "  is  found  in  the  story  at  that  early  date, 
Professor  Short  is  doubtless  correct  in  saying  that 
the  claim  "  carries  its  own  refutation  upon  its  face." 

After  a  residence  of  twenty  years  in  the  country 
there  is  only  one  evidence  which  we  have  met  that 
might  be  considered  as  favoring  the  Irish  theory, 
and  even  this  must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  a 
modern  tradition. 

From  the  early  days  of  the  present  century  down 
to  1876  history  records  an  almost  uninterrupted 
series  of  disturbances  in  Mexico.  Sometimes  on 
the  slightest  pretext  people  were  up  in  arms  against 
the  existing  government. 

Now,  there  is  a  modern   tradition  that  a  newly 


48  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

arrived  emigrant  from  Hibernia,  on  being  informed> 
in  reply  to  his  first  question  at  Castle  Garden,  that 
there  was  a  government,  declared  with  his  accus 
tomed  patriotism,  "  Well,  then,  I'm  agin  the  govern 
ment.'"  How  many  of  these  oft-repeated  revolutions 
are  due  to  the  existence  of  Irish  blood  in  Mexican 
veins  we  do  not  pretend  to  say. 

3.  The  Scotch  theory  is  based  upon  the  assertions 
of  a   gentleman   from   the    Highlands  of  Scotland 
finding  Indian    tribes  in   Florida  whose    languages 
"  had  the  greatest  affinity  with  the  Celtic  in  their 
speech."     We   are   assured,  too,  that  "  the   Indian 
names  of  several  of  the  streams,  brooks,  mountains, 
and  rocks  of  Florida   are  also  the  same  which   are 
given  to  similar  objects  in  the  Highlands  of  Scot 
land."  * 

Lord  Monboddo,  writing  in  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury,  gives  several  instances  to  prove  that  the  lan 
guage  of  the  native  Highlanders  was  found  in 
America,  and  that  an  Eskimo  could  readily  con 
verse  with  a  Scotchman  after  only  a  few  days' 
practice. 

4.  Not  a  few  authors  believe  that  the  Americans 
descended  from  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Gre 
cian  Archipelago.     George  Jones,  in  his  History  of 
Ancient  America  (London,  1843),  believes  that  the 

*  Priest's  American  Antiquities  y  p.  230. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  49 

sculpture  of  ruins  in  Uxmal,  Yucatan,  follow  the 
Greek  style. 

Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  claims  identity  between 
some  American  gods  and  Greek  deities.  Mons. 
Lafitau,  in  Mceurs  des  Sauvages  Ameriquains  Corn- 
par  ees  aux  Mceurs  des  Premiers  Temps  (Paris,  1724), 
says  that  the  subjects  of  Og,  King  of  Bashan,  drove 
ancient  Greeks  from  their  home,  and  he  thinks  he 
finds  them  in  America.  Idolatry,  the  use  of  sacred 
fire,  bacchanalian  revels,  resemblances  in  marriage 
customs,  system  of  education,  manner  of  hunting, 
fishing,  and  making  war,  games  and  sports,  treatment 
of  the  sick,  mourning  and  burial  customs,  are  all 
quoted  to  support  his  view. 

Another  writer  reports  hearing  of  a  rock  in  Peru 
containing  something  which  looked  like  a  Greek 
inscription. 

William  Pidgeon,  in  Traditions  of  Decoodah,  and 
Antiquarian  Researches  (New  York,  1858),  says  that 
a  farmer  in  Brazil  discovered,  in  1827,  "  a  flat  stone, 
upon  which  was  engraved  a  Greek  inscription  which, 
as  far  as  it  was  legible,  read  as  follows  :  '  During  the 
dominion  of  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  King  of 
Macedon,  in  the  sixty-third  Olympiad,  Ptolemaios.' 
Deposited  beneath  the  stone  were  found  two  ancient 
swords,  a  helmet,  and  a  shield.  On  the  handle  of  one 
of  the  swords  was  a  portrait  of  Alexander ;  on  the 
5 


50  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

helmet  was  a  beautiful  design  representing  Achilles 
dragging  the  corpse  of  Hector  round  the  walls  of 
Troy."  Mr.  Pidgeon  draws  the  conclusion  "  that 
the  soil  of  Brazil  was  formerly  broken  by  Ptole- 
maios,  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  the  dis 
covery  of  Columbus."  * 

5.  The  Roman   theory  rests  on   the  vastness  of 
certain   ruins,  the  remains  of  fine  roads,  the  fond 
ness  of  ancient  Americans  for  gladiatorial  combats, 
and  a  few  coins  reported  to  have  been  found  at  dif 
ferent  places  on  the  continent.     Priest,  Torquemada, 
Villagutierre,  and  Lord  Kingsborough  give  more  or 
less  credit  to  these  evidences. 

6.  The  Norseman  theory  seems  well  established, 
and,  while  it  does  not  go  so  far  back  as  several  of 
the  others,  it  does  antedate  by  nearly  five  hundred 
years  the  coming  of  Columbus.     Baron   Humboldt 
sums  up  the  evidence  thus  :  "  The  discovery  of  the 
northern  part  of  America  by  the  Northmen  cannot  be 
disputed.     The  length  of  the  voyage,  the  direction 
in  which  they  sailed,  the  time  of  the  sun's  rising 
and  setting,  are  accurately  given.     While  the  caliph 
ate  of  Bagdad  was  still  flourishing  under  the  Ab- 
bassides,    and    while    the    rule    of  the  Samanides, 
so   favorable   to   poetry,  still   flourished   in    Persia, 
America  was  discovered  about  the  year   looo  by 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  123. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  51 

Lief,  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  at  about  41  1-2°  north 
latitude." 

The  publication  of  original  documents  by  the 
Royal  Society  at  Copenhagen  ought  to  be  sufficient 
to  satisfy  the  most  skeptical.  Mr.  B.  F.  De  Costa 
says  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  their  authenticity, 
and  Hubert  Howe  Bancroft  agrees  with  him, 
though  George  Bancroft  and  Washington  Irving 
do  not ;  but  the  latter  frankly  confesses  that  he  did 
not  have  the  "  means  of  tracing  this  story  to  its 
original  sources." 

Mr.  George  Bancroft  disposes  of  the  entire  sub 
ject  in  one  page,  while  his  later  and  more  persistent 
namesake  devotes  the  good  part  of  a  chapter  to  the 
subject  in  the  light  of  these  original  documents  pub 
lished  at  Copenhagen.  His  entire  first  chapter  on 
this  general  subject  in  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  is  most 
interesting.  Part  of  it  is  quite  romantic. 

Mr.  R.  B.  Anderson,  who  published  America  Not 
Discovered  by  Columbus  (Chicago,  1874),  claims  that 
the  Northmen  left  a  greater  impression  upon  Amer 
icans  than  is  generally  believed. 

M.  Grarier,  in  his  Discovery  of  America  by  Norse 
men  (Paris,  1864),  attributes  Aztec  civilization  to 
Norse  influence.  The  famous  Abbe"  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg  is  quoted  as  agreeing  with  them.  He 
claims  to  have  found  many  words  in  the  languages 


52  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

of  Central  America  with  marked  Scandinavian 
traces,  also  ancient  traditions  which  point  to  a 
northeast  origin.  This  Norse  influence  is  fre 
quently  referred  to  by  contemporaneous  authors  in 
Mexico. 

Of  the  African  theories  there  are  four  : 

i.  The  Egyptian  theory  seems  based  entirely 
upon  analogies.  These  analogies  are  said  "  to  ex 
ist  between  the  architecture,  hieroglyphics,  meth 
ods  of  computing  time,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  cus 
toms  of  the  two  countries."* 

Carlos  Siguenza  y  Gongora,  writing  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  believed  that  the 
posterity  of  Naphtuhim  "  left  Egypt  not  long  after 
the  confusion  of  tongues  and  traveled  toward  Amer 
ica."  Pierre  Daniel  Huet,  a  noted  French  bishop 
of  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  accepts 
Siguenza's  conclusions,  and,  in  addition  to  the 
above  reasons,  adds  "the  resemblance  of  the  word 
Teotl  of  the  Mexicans  to  the  Theuth  of  the  Egyp 
tians." 

Concerning  archaeological  analogies,  Garcia  Cubas 
gives  the  following  between  the  pyramids  of  San 
Juan  Teotihuacan  (only  twenty  miles  from  the  city 
of  Mexico)  and  those  of  Egypt:  "The  site  chosen 
is  the  same ;  the  structures  are  oriented  with  slight 

*  Native  Races>  vol.  v,  p.  55. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  53 

variations ;  the  line  through  the  center  of  the  pyra 
mids  is  the  astronomical  meridian ;  the  construc 
tion  in  grades  and  steps  is  the  same ;  in  both  cases 
the  larger  pyramids  are  dedicated  to  the  sun  ;  the 
Nile  has  a  *  valley  of  the  dead,'  and  at  Teotihuacan 
there  is  a  '  street  of  the  dead  ; '  some  monuments 
of  each  class  have  the  nature  of  fortifications ;  the 
smaller  mounds  are  of  the  same  nature  and  same 
purposes ;  both  pyramids  have  a  small  mound 
joined  to  one  of  their  faces ;  the  openings  found 
in  the  Pyramid  of  the  Moon  are  also  found  in  some 
Egyptian  pyramids;  the  interior  arrangement  is 
analogous."* 

Clavigero  does  not  see  so  much  in  the  pyramidal 
analogy  as  in  the  matter  of  computing  time.  On 
this  point  he  says:  "  In  the  mode  of  computing 
time  the  Mexicans  were  much  more  similar  to  the 
Egyptians.  .  .  .  The  Egyptian  solar  year  was  com 
posed  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  like  that 
of  the  Mexicans ;  the  one  and  the  other  contained 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  in  their  years, 
and  as  the  Egyptians  added  five  days  to  their  last 
month,  Mesori,  so  did  the  Mexicans  to  their  month 
Izcalii,  in  which  particular  they  agreed  with  the 
Persians." 

In  the  matter  of  hieroglyphics  he  adds:  "  Many 

*  Ensayo  de  un  Estudio  Comparative,  Garcia  Cubas,  Mexico. 


54  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

other  nations  have  done  the  same  to  conceal  the 
mysteries  of  their  religions." 

The  manner  of  dress  is  another  argument.  In 
Gen.  x  (as  well  as  I  Chron.  i)  we  read  that  Naphtu- 
him  was  the  third  son  of  Mizraim  (verse  13),  who 
was  the  second  son  of  Ham  (verse  6),  who  in  turn 
was  the  second  son  of  Noah  (verse  i).  Smith's 
Bible  Dictionary  locates  the  tribe  of  Naphtuhim  in 
Egypt,  and  says  that  they  are  spoken  of  in  the 
Egyptian  inscriptions  "  in  a  general  manner  when 
the  kings  are  said,  in  laudatory  inscriptions,  to  have 
subdued  great  nations,  such  as  the  Negroes,  or  ex 
tensive  countries,  such  as  Keesh,  or  Cush  "  (vol.  ii. 
p.  463). 

Kitto,  however,  identifies  "  Naphtuhim  with  the 
city  of  Naphata  or  Napata,  the  capital  of  an  ancient 
Ethiopian  kingdom,  and  one  of  the  most  splendid 
cities  in  Africa."  He  also  thinks  Naphtuhim,  or 
Napata,  was  the  royal  seat  of  Queen  Candace,  men 
tioned  in  connection  with  the  baptism  of  the 
eunuch  by  Philip,  and  thereby  makes,  to  say  the 
least,  a  very  curious  connection  between  one  of  the 
ancient  tribes  of  the  Old  Testament  and  an  incident 
in  apostolic  times  (Acts  viii,  27  ;  see  also  McClin- 
tock  &  Strong,  vol.  vi,  p.  844).  Villagutierre, 
Orrio,  and  Torquemada  all  believe  that  Ham  was 
the  father  of  the  American  race,  though  the 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  55 

former  believes  that  his  descendants  came  by 
land.* 

2.  The  Carthaginian  theory  seems  to  be  based  on 
tradition,  in  support  of  which  the  fact  of  their  knowl 
edge  of,  and  fondness  for,  navigation  is  much  quoted. 

Hamro,  a  Carthaginian  navigator,  is  reported  by 
several  ancient  authors  to  have  made  wonderful 
voyages  of  discovery,  and  some  modern  writers 
think  that  he  came  as  far  as  the  American  continent 
and  planted  a  colony. 

This  story  is  very  much  mixed,  by  some  authors, 
with  the  Phoenician  story,  which  we  will  consider  in 
connection  witfi  Asiatic  theories.  But  this  confu 
sion  is  not  so  strange  when  we  remember  that 
Carthage  was  itself  a  colony  of  Phoenicia  and  evi 
dently  one  of  its  most  important  possessions.  Its 
commanding  position  on  the  Mediterranean,  about 
where  the  modern  Tunis  now  stands,  was  duly  ap 
preciated  by  this  maritime-loving  people.  Hence 
in  time  it  became  a  great  commercial  and  warlike 
republic  till  its  dispute  of  the  empire  of  the  world 
with  Rome  gave  rise  to  the  famous  Punic  wars.  It 
is  chiefly  the  extended  power  of  this  African  repub 
lic  that  leads  many  to  give  importance  to  certain 
analogies  between  ancient  Mexican  tribes  and  the 
Carthaginians. 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  n. 


56  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

3.  On    the   northwestern    corner   of  Africa   was 
founded  the   ancient  empire  of  Numidia,  with  its 
twelve  hundred  miles  of  coast  line.     It  was  at  one 
time  distinguished  for  prosperity,  population,  and 
wealth. 

"  It  was  one  of  the  chief  granaries  of  Rome,  and 
was  second  only  to  Egypt  in  fertility.  The  Roman 
writers  called  it  the  soul  of  the  republic  and  the 
jewel  of  the  empire.  .  .  .  Many  wild  beasts  were 
sent  hence  to  Rome  to  be  exhibited  in  its  amphi 
theaters."  * 

Tradition,  especially  among  early  Church  authors 
of  Spanish  origin,  says  that  the  Numidians  sailed 
west  as  well  as  east ;  that  they  went  far  beyond 
the  Canary  Islands  till  they  came  to  a  great  island 
and  established  colonies  in  what  is  now  Mexican 
territory. 

4.  The  Atlantis  theory.     Twenty-five  years  ago 
the  mere  mention  of  this  theory  provoked  a  smile. 
But  of  late  writers  are  giving    it  most  thoughtful 
attention.     We  prefer  to   mention  it  in  connection 
with  the  African    theories  because  it  seems  to  us 
that  the  weight   of  evidence  is    in   favor  of  Afric- 
American  connection    rather   than   any  other  con 
tinuous  land  connection  on  the  Atlantic  side.     We 
are   aware  that  that  Nestor   of   Methodist  college 

*  Mitchell's  Ancient  Geography,  p.  65. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  57 

presidents,  Dr.  W.  F.  Warren,  in  Paradise  Found 
(p.  1 86),  locates  the  lost  Atlantis  in  the  Paleo-Arctic 
Ocean.  But  while,  as  in  other  days,  we  would 
gladly  sit  at  his  feet  to  learn,  we  can  but  feel  the 
force  of  the  theory  of  the  mid-Atlantic  location  of 
this  supposed  continent,  especially  in  the  light  of 
recent  naval  explorations  conducted  by  the  British, 
German,  and  American  governments  severally. 

The  story  of  Atlantis  as  translated  from  Plato,  in 
his  Timceus,  and  published  in  Foster's  Prehistoric 
Races  (p.  394) ;  in  Bancroft's  Native  Races  (vol.  v, 
p.  1 23) ;  in  Clavigero's  History  of  Mexico  ;  by  Chavero, 
A  Traves  de  los  Siglos  (vol.  i,  p.  64),  and  others,  is 
as  follows : 

"  Among  the  great  deeds  of  Athens,  of  which 
recollection  is  preserved  in  our  books,  there  is  one 
which  should  be  placed  above  all  others.  Our 
books  tell  us  that  the  Athenians  destroyed  an  army 
which  came  across  the  Atlantic  Sea  and  insolently  in 
vaded  Europe  and  Asia,  for  this  sea  was  then  navi 
gable,  and  beyond  the  strait  where  you  place  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  there  was  an  island  larger  than 
Asia  (Minor)  and  Libya  combined.  From  this 
island  one  could  pass  easily  to  other  islands,  and 
from  these  to  the  continent  which  lies  around  the 
interior  sea.  The  sea  on  this  side  of  the  strait  (the 
Mediterranean)  of  which  we  speak  resembles  a 


58  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

harbor  with  a  narrow  entrance ;  but  there  is  a  gen 
uine  sea,  and  the  land  which  surrounds  it  is  a  veri 
table  continent.  In  the  island  of  Atlantis  reigned 
three  kings  with  great  and  marvelous  power.  They 
had  under  their  dominion  the  whole  of  Atlantis, 
several  other  islands,  and  some  parts  of  the  conti 
nent.  At  one  time  their  power  extended  into 
Libya,  and  into  Europe  as  far  as  Tyrrhenia,  and, 
uniting  their  whole  force,  they  sought  to  destroy 
our  countries  at  a  blow;  but  their  defeat  stopped 
the  invasion  and  gave  entire  independence  to  all  the 
countries  this  side  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  Aft 
erward,  in  one  day  and  one  fatal  night,  there  came 
mighty  earthquakes  and  inundations  which  engulfed 
the  warlike  people.  Atlantis  disappeared  beneath 
the  sea,  and  then  that  sea  became  inaccessible,  so 
that  navigation  on  it  ceased  on  account  of  the  quan 
tity  of  mud  which  the  engulfed  island  left  in  its 
place." 

Plutarch,  in  his  Life  of  Solon,  relates  that  when 
that  lawgiver  was  in  Egypt  "  he  conferred  with 
the  priests  and  learned  from  them  the  story  of 
Atlantis." 

Diodorus  Siculus  states  that,  "  Over  against 
Africa  lies  a  very  great  island  in  the  vast  ocean, 
many  days'  sail  from  Libya  westward." 

Dr.  J.  W.  Foster  adds :  "  These  passages  from  the 


»        ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  59 

ancient  classics  as  to  the  existence  of  a  western 
continent,  coupled  with  certain  traditions  to  be 
found  in  the  ancient  Mexican  records  of  a  great 
catastrophe,  the  combined  results  of  earthquakes 
and  inundations,  by  which  a  large  area  in  Central 
America  became  submerged  and  a  greater  portion 
of  the  population  destroyed,  have  reopened  the  dis 
cussion  whether  Plato's  story  of  Atlantis  does  not 
belong  to  the  sobrieties  of  truth." 

Mr.  George  Catlin,  in  The  Lifted  and  Subsided 
Rocks  of  America  (London,  1870),  tells  how  the 
native  tribes  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  in 
British  and  Dutch  Guinea,  clearly  describe  such  a 
cataclysm.  In  a  volume  written  four  years  earlier 
he  tells  of  such  a  tradition  among  the  Indians  of 
North  America. 

The  most  enthusiastic  advocate  of  this  story  is 
the  famous  Abbe"  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg.  Hubert 
Howe  Bancroft  quotes  extensively  from  the  abbess 
earlier  and  later  work  on  the  Codex  Chimalpopoca, 
and  while  he  does  not  accept  all  his  conclusions  he 
does  say,  "  I  know  no  man  better  qualified  than  was 
Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  to  penetrate  the  obscurity 
of  American  primitive  history.  His  familiarity 
with  the  Nahua  and  Central  American  languages, 
his  indefatigable  industry  and  general  erudition, 

*  Prehistoric  Races,   p.  396. 


60  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO.  , 

rendered  him  eminently  fit  for  such  a  task,  and 
every  word  written  by  such  a  man  on  such  a  sub 
ject  is  entitled  to  respectful  consideration."* 

The  abbe's  persistent  study  of  an  ancient  manu 
script  in  the  Nahua  language,  which  he  calls  the 
Codex  Chimalpopoca,  and  which  purports  to  be  a 
History  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Culhuacan  and  Mexico, 
led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  what  is  now  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea  was  formerly 
solid  land,  and  that  this  land  extended  across  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  possibly  as  far  as  the  Canary 
Islands.  He  also  believed  that  the  first  civilization 
of  the  earth  was  on  the  lost  Atlantis,  "that  the  first 
ceremonial  religion  commenced  there,  as  well  as  the 
first  age  of  bronze,  which  spread  over  the  two  hem 
ispheres,  and  that  we  have  the  beginning  and  basis 
of  American  ethnology/'  He  appeals  to  compara 
tive  philology  to  support  his  views  : 

"  The  word  Atlas  and  Atlantic  have  no  satis 
factory  etymology  in  any  language  known  to 
Europe.  They  are  not  Greek,  and  cannot  be 
referred  to  any  known  language  of  the  Old  World. f 
But  in  the  Nahuatl  (or  Toltecan)  language  we  find 
immediately  the  radical  a,  atl,  which  signifies 
water,  man,  and  the  top  of  the  head.  From  this 

*  Native  Races,  p.  127. 

•j-  Vocab.  en  lengua  Mexicana  y  CasteHana,  Molina. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  61 

comes  a  series  of  words,  such  as  At  Ian,  on  the 
border  of,  or  amid  the  water,  from  which  we  have 
the  adjective  Atlantic.  We  have  also  atlaca,  to 
combat,  or  to  be  in  agony  ;  it  means,  also,  to  hurl 
or  dart  from  the  water,  and  in  the  preterit  makes 
Atlaz.  A  city  named  Atlan  existed  when  the  con 
tinent  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  the  Gulf  of 
Urba,  Darien,  with  a  good  harbor,  but  is  now  re 
duced  to  an  unimportant  pueblo  named  Ada." ' 
Charles  Martins,  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  (March, 
1867),  says  that  "  Hydrography,  geology,  and  bot 
any  agree  in  teaching  us  that  the  Azores,  the  Cana 
ries,  and  Madeira  are  the  remains  of  a  great  con 
tinent." 

The  interesting  account  of  the  voyages  and  ex 
plorations  of  the  United  States  ship  Dolphin,  the 
German  frigate  Gazelle,  and  her  majesty's  ships 
Lightning,  Porcupine,  and  Challenger,  as  given  by 
Professor  John  T.  Short  (p.  501,  et  seq.},  are  confirm 
atory  of  Martins's  first  argument.  On  the  second 
argument  a  member  of  the  Challenger  staff,  in  a  lec 
ture  delivered  in  London  soon  after  their  return, 
44  expressed  the  fullest  confidence  that  the  great  sub 
marine  plateau  is  the  remains  of  the  'lost  Atlantis,' 
citing  as  proof  the  fact  that  the  inequalities,  the 
mountains  and  valleys  of  its  surface,  could  never 

*  Prehistoric  Races,  p.  397. 


62  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

have  been  produced  in  accordance  with  any  laws 
for  the  disposition  of  sediment  nor  by  submarine 
elevation,  but,  on  the  contrary,  must  have  been 
carved  by  agencies,  acting  above  the  water  level." 
On  the  third  argument  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
Sir  C.  Wyville  Thomson,  of  the  same  ship,  says  he 
"  found  that  the  fauna  of  the  coast  of  Brazil  brought 

o 

up  by  his  dredging  machine  were  similar  to  that  of 
the  western  coast  of  south  Europe." 

Among  the  most  interesting  objects  in  the  Na 
tional  Museum  of  the  city  of  Mexico  is  a  colossal 
head  of  diorite  which  stands  three  feet  high.  It 
has  long  been  a  study  for  all  Mexican  and  some 
foreign  archaeologists.  It  is  now  generally  believed 
that  Sefior  Eufemio  Abadiano  has  discovered  its 
true  meaning,  in  declaring  it  to  be  a  "  personifica 
tion  of  Atlantis,  the  lost  continent."  With  the 
Codex  Chimalpopoca,  already  referred  to,  in  his  hand, 
Sefior  Abadiano  made  a  careful  study  of  this  curi 
ous  piece  of  ancient  sculpture.  He  finds  the  story 
of  the  great  catastrophe  by  which  Atlantis  was  sub 
merged  explained  to  his  satisfaction,  and  puts  the 
date  of  its  occurrence  at  about  1000  B.  C.,  at  which 
period  the  great  Votan,  of  whom  we  shall  speak 
more  fully  later  on,  reached  Mexico. 

Edward  Garcynski,  at.  this  date  traveling  and 
studying  in  Mexico,  says,  "  We  have  only  to  thank 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  63 

Plato  for  the  name  of  the  lost  continent ;  "  but, 
after  referring  to  Abadiano's  Study  of  the  Codex 
Chimalpopoca,  he  adds,  "  It  is  in  Mexican  literature 
that  we  find  precise  statements." 

In  Smithsonian  Report  for  1859  (P-  2^6)  Professor 
Retzins  declares :  "  We  find  one  and  the  same  form 
of  skull  in  the  Canary  Islands,  in  front  of  the  Afri 
can  coast,  and  in  the  Carib  Islands  on  the  opposite 
coast,  which  faces  Africa.  .  .  .  The  color  of  the  skin 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  is  represented  in  these 
populations  as  being  of  a  reddish  brown.  .  .  .  These 
facts  involuntarily  recall  the  tradition  which  Plato 
tells  us  in  his  Timcetis  was  communicated  to  Solon 
by  an  Egyptian  priest,  representing  the  ancient 
Atlantis." 

Dr.  Le  Plongeon  found  that  the  sandals  upon 
the  feet  of  the  great  goddess  Chaacmol,  which  he 
discovered  in  Yucatan,  and  of  the  statue  of  a  priest 
ess  found  on  the  island  of  Mujeres,  "are  exact 
representations  of  those  found  on  the  feet  of  the 
Guanches,  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  Canary 
Islands,  whose  mummies  are  yet  occasionally  met 
with  in  the  caves  of  Teneriffe  and  the  other  isles  of 
the  group." 

Bishop  Las  Casas,  who  devotes  an  entire  chapter 
to  this  lost  island  or  continent,  not  only  expresses  his 
firm  belief  in  its  existence,  but  suggests  that  possi- 


64  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

bly  Columbus  had  read  Plato's  story,  and  thought, 
perchance,  that  the  submerged  land  had  left 
another  island  or  continent  still  above  the  water 
which  might  reward  his  patience  and  perseverance. 
Count  Buffbn,  of  Burgundy,  one  of  the  most  famous 
naturalists  and  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century 
(died  in  Paris,  1788),  believed  that  Africa  and  Amer 
ica  were  formerly  connected  with  this  great  chain  of 
rock,  whose  rugged  links  are  now  buried  in  a  waste 
of  waters. 

Siguenza,  as  frequently  quoted  by  Clavigero,  be 
lieved  in  the  Atlantida.  And  Clavigero  himself 
says :  "  For  the  reasons  we  have  already  submitted 
we  are  persuaded  that  there  was  formerly  a  great 
tract  of  land  which  united  the  now  most  eastern 
part  of  Brazil  to  the  most  western  part  of  Africa, 
and  that  all  that  space  of  land  may  have  been  sunk 
by  some  violent  earthquake."  * 

In  1737  Mons.  de  Bauche  presented  to  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Science,  of  Paris,  hydrographical  charts 
of  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  support  of  this 
same  theory.  It  is  said  that  his  charts  "  were  ex 
amined  and  approved  by  the  academy." 

It  is  sometimes  argued  that  it  is  inconceivable  to 
suppose  any  earthquake  could  destroy  such  an  im 
mense  tract  of  land,  which,  according  to  some,  must 

*  History  of  Mexico,  vol.  iii,  p.  117. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  65 

have  been  about  one  thousand  five  hundred  miles 
long.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  insist  that  it  was 
the  work  of  one  shock  ;  it  might  have  been  a  suc 
cession  of  shocks.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
it  is  stated  in  history  that  in  1663  one  single  quake 
completely  leveled  a  chain  of  rocky  mountains  three 
hundred  miles  long  in  Canada.  No  one  can  say 
what  might  have  happened,  or  would  even  happen 
now,  if  the  great  masses  of  combustible  matter  in 
the  immense  natural  mines  under  our  feet  should 
become  ignited  and  communicate  with  each  other. 
Would  it  require  more  physical  force  to  submerge 
an  Atlantis  than  to  throw  an  Ixtaccihuatl  or  a  Po 
pocatepetl  seventeen  and  nineteen  thousand  feet 
up  into  the  air,  and  leave  them  standing  there  with 
their  heads  in  the  eternal  snows  while  the  ages  come 
and  go  ?  Perhaps  the  very  disappearance  of  the 
Atlantis  chains  under  the  Atlantic  billows  may  have 
been  succeeded  by  the  upheaval  of  the  Mexican 
volcanoes,  for  land  and  water  must  always  carry  the 
same  proportion. 

In  the  contemplation  of  such  majestic  facts  we 
may  sing  as  did  Moses  fifteen  centuries  before  Christ 
(Deut.  xxxii,  3),  or  the  psalmist  later  (Psalm  cxi,  2), 
or  the  aged  apostle  in  exile  on  lonely  Patmos, 
"  Great  and  marvelous  are  thy  work?  T  ord  God 
Almighty  "  (Rev.  xv,  3). 
6 


66  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Of  the  Asiatic  theories  there  are  at  least  six,  un 
der  all  of  which  there  is,  perhaps,  some  foundation 
of  truth.  This  seems  quite  evident  when  we  find, 
as  we  shall  later,  that  several  of  the  tribes  of  Mex 
ico  preserve,  in  their  traditions  and  paintings,  the 
memory  of  the  creation,  the  deluge,  the  Tower  of 
Babel,  the  confusion  of  tongues,  and  the  dispersion 
of  the  people. 

I.  The  theory  found  in  the  Book  of  Mormon 
hardly  merits  mention.  The  story  is  given  in  Ban 
croft's  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  and  covers  five  pages 
(p.  96,  et  scq.).  It  is  rather  romantic  and  reaches 
from  the  Tower  of  Babel,  soon  after  which  it  is 
claimed  the  first  Mormons  came  to  this  continent, 
down  to  September  22,  1827,  when  Joseph  Smith 
removed  the  buried  book  from  the  hill  of  Cumorah, 
Ontario  County,  N.  Y.  The  whole  story  is  not 
only  a  pretentious  fraud,  but  also  a  blasphemous 
perversion  of  Old  Testament  history. 

The  learned  John  Fiske  in  his  recent  valuable 
work,  The  Discovery  of  America  (Boston,  1892),  well 
says:  "It  is  extremely  difficult  for  an  impostor  to 
concoct  a  narrative  without  making  blunders  that 
can  easily  be  detected  by  a  critical  scholar.  For 
example,  the  Book  of  Mormon,  in  the  passage  cited, 
in  supremely  blissful  ignorance  introduces  oxen, 
sheep,  and  silkworms,  as  well  as  the  knowledge  of 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  67 

smelting  iron,  into  pre-Columbian  America"  (vol.  i, 
p.  179). 

2.  The  Jewish  theory.  Probably  no  theory  has 
given  origin  to  greater  discussion  than  that  the  lost 
tribes  of  Israel  were  the  first  populators  of  all  the 
Pacific  States  as  far  south  as  Peru.  Learned  men 
are  found  arrayed  on  both  sides  of  the  question. 

Father  Diego  Duran,  of  vast  erudition  in  the  an 
cient  history  of  Mexico,  is  the  first  author  of  note 
to  publish  this  plan.  He  wrote  in  1585.  From  a 
study  of  traditions  and  picture  painting,  aided  by 
an  aged  Indian  at  Cholula,  who  had  lived  nearly  a 
hundred  years,  he  came  to  the  "  conclusion  that 
these  natives  are  of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  that 
Shalmanescr,  king  of  the  Assyrians,  made  prisoners 
and  carried  to  Assyria  in  the  time  of  Hoshea,  king 
of  Israel,  and  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  king  of  Jeru 
salem,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  fourth  book  of  the 
Kings,  seventeenth  chapter,  etc." 

In  his  first  chapter,  which  is  entirely  devoted  to 
this  subject,  Father  Duran  quotes  several  times  from 
the  Old  Testament,  but  relies  mainly  on  a  citation 
from  the  Book  of  Esdras,  where  he  reads  that  "  they 
went  to  live  in  a  land,  remote  and  separated,  which 
had  never  been  inhabited,  to  which  they  had  a  long 
and  tedious  journey  of  a  year  and  a  half,  for  which 
reason  it  is  supposed  these  people  are  found  in  all 


68  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  islands  and  lands  of  the  ocean  constituting  the 
Occident." 

It  is,  to  say  the  least,  amusing  to  see  the  restraint 
under  which  men  studied  and  wrote  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Father  Duran  brings  his  arguments  to  a 
close  by  saying  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to 
conclusions ;  "  but  in  all  I  submit  myself  to  the  cor 
rection  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church."  * 

Gregorio  Garcia,  who  resided  nine  years  in  Peru, 
in  his  Origin  of  the  Indians  (Madrid,  1729),  enlarges 
on  Duran 's  plan  and  gives  numberless  supposed 
similarities  between  the  Mexicans  and  Hebrews  in 
character,  dress,  religion,  physical  peculiarities,  con 
dition,  customs,  and  language. 

Lord  Kingsborough  in  a  most  scholarly  and  dig 
nified  way  tries  to  prove  the  same  theory.  He  also 
gives  an  extended  list  of  similarities  between  the 
Jews  and  the  Mexicans.  Among  other  things  he 
says  :  "  It  is  probable  that  the  Toltecs  were  ac 
quainted  with  the  sin  of  the  first  man,  committed 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  woman,  herself  deceived 
by  the  serpent,  who  tempted  her  with  the  fruit 
of  the  forbidden  tree,  who  was  the  origin  of  all 
our  calamities,  and  by  whom  death  came  into  the 
world."  f 

*  Historia  de  las  Indicts,  vol.  i,  p.  3. 

f  Quoted  by  Bancroft,  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  85. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  69 

"  The  character  and  history  of  Christ  and  Huit- 
zilopochtli  present  certain  analogies."* 

"  The  Mexicans  applied  the  blood  of  sacrifices  to 
the  same  uses  as  the  Jews."f 

For  an  excellent  restime  of  all  the  interesting  and 
curious  analogies  contained  in  Lord  Kingsborough's 
voluminous  work,  see  Bancroft's  Native  Races,  vol. 
v,  pp.  80-91  inclusive.  Suffice  it  here  to  say  that 
this  enthusiastic,  almost  fanatical  advocate  of  the 
Jewish  discovery  of  America  finds  something  par 
allel  in  Mexican  traditions  to  the  entire  biblical  his 
tory  from  Eden  to  Calvary. 

Mr.  James  Adair,  who  lived  and  traded  for  forty 
years  with  the  American  Indians  (London,  1775),  is 
a  warm  advocate  of  this  same  theory,  following  in 
the  footsteps  of  Garcia.  Professor  Short  (p.  143) 
gives  the  names  of  a  number  of  learned  authors 
who  practically  agree  with  Duran  and  Garcia. 

Circumstantial  evidence  has  not  been  lacking  in 
our  country  toward  the  support  of  this  theory.  In 
1815  Mr.  James  Merrick,  of  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  for.nd, 
while  plowing,  what  seemed  to  be  a  black  strap 
about  six  inches  in  length.  On  trying  to  cut  it  he 
"  found  it  was  formed  of  two  pieces  of  thick  raw 
hide,  sewed  and  made  water-tight  with  the  sinews 
of  some  animal,  and  gummed  over;  and  in  the  fold 

*  Kingsborough.  \Idem. 


7O  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

was  contained  four  folded  pieces  of  parchment."* 
One  piece  was,  unfortunately,  destroyed,  but  when 
the  other  pieces  were  taken  to  Harvard  College 
they  were  discovered  to  be  quotations  in  Hebrew 
from  the  Old  Testament. 

More  recently,  in  the  State  of  Ohio,  in  the  heart 
of  a  mound  was  discovered  a  stone  casket,  which  on 
being  opened  was  found  to  contain  a  slab  of  stone 
eight  inches  long  and  four  and  a  half  inches  wide  at 
one  end  and  three *at  the  other,  with  writing  which 
the  Episcopal  rector  of  Newark  pronounced  to  be 
the  Ten  Commandments  in  ancient  Hebrew.f 

In  my  library  I  have  an  old  book  published  in 
Mexico  in  1807,  Decree  of  Napoleon,  Emperor  of  the 
French,  on  the  Jews,  etc.  This  curious  old  book, 
written  by  Juan  Lopez  Cancelada,  claims  that 
after  the  captivity  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  migrated 
as  far  as  Tartary  at  first.  Then  later  they  passed 
over  the  Straits  of  Anian  (Behring)  and  spread 
over  the  American  continent.  Cancelada  appeals 
to  the  letters  of  William  Penn  to  prove  (p.  98)  that 
the  Quakers  found  the  Indians  of  Pennsylvania 
using  the  Hebrew  language,  names,  coins,  and  cus 
toms. 

The  same  author  cites  two  finds  of  elephant  bones 
in  Mexico — one  at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  in  1784, 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  93.  f  Idem.,  p.  94. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  71 

and  the  other  at  Aguascalientes,  in  1795 — and  says 
that  the  Jews  brought  them  across  the  straits  on 
rafts. 

Mr.  George  Jones  in  his  work  colonizes  this  con 
tinent  with  "  a  remanent  of  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre 
who  escaped  from  their  island  city  when  it  was 
besieged  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  332  B.  C." 

3.  Concerning    the    colonists    from     India    it    is 
only  necessary  to  say  that  it  rests  on  analogies  be 
tween  Buddhism  and  the  religion  of  the  early  Mex 
icans,  pointed  out  by  Humboldt,  Tschudi,  Viollet- 
Leduc,    Count    Stolberg,   and    some    others.      The 
presence  of  the  serpent  among  Mexican  antiquities 
is  everywhere  manifest,  and  Baron  Humboldt  thinks 
he  sees  "  the  famous   serpent   Kaliya  or  Kaluiaga 
conquered    by  Vishnu,  .  .  .  and    in    the    Mexican 
Tonatiuh,  the  Hindoo  Krishna  sung  of  in  the  Bhaga- 
vata-Purana."  f 

4.  The  Chinese   theory  is  warmly  advocated  by 
our    worthy    missionary,    Rev.    Dr.    McMaster,    of 
San    Francisco,   Cal.        Perhaps   the   first   writer  in 
modern    times    to    call    attention    to    this    theory 
was  the  celebrated  French  Sinologist  Deguines,  in 

*  Original  History  of  Ancient  America,  Founded  on  the  Rtdns  of 
Antiquity;  The  Identity  of  the  Aborigines  with  the  People  of  Tyrus 
and  Israel,  and  the  Introduction  of  Christianity  by  the  Apostle  St. 
Thomas  (London,  1843). 

f  Short,  p.  466. 


72  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Memoir es  de  r Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
Lettres,  vol.  xxviii  (Paris,  1761).  He  found  in  the 
history  of  Li  Yan  Tcheon,  written  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  account  of  a  Buddhist  missionary  who 
returned' in  499  A.  D.  "  from  a  long  journey  of  dis 
covery  to  the  remote  and  unknown  East."  The 
distance  given  is  about  20,000  Chinese  li,  or  about 
6,666  miles.  In  1841  Dr.  Neuman,  of  Munich, 
after  mastering  the  Chinese  language,  published  a 
translation  of  this  story  which  may  be  seen  in  Charles 
G.  Leland's  Fusang,  or  the  Chinese  Discovery  of 
America  (New  York,  1875). 

These  published  accounts  of  what  the  Hori-Shin 
saw  seem  very  significant  to  the  traveler  in  Mexico. 
There  is  a  considerable  resemblance  between  the 
Otomi,  spoken  in  Mexico,  and  the  Chinese.  Ban 
croft  thinks  the  strongest  proof  upon  which  the 
Chinese  theory  rests  is  the  physical  resemblance 
between  the  inhabitants,  and  quotes  Taylor,  in  the 
Calif ornian  Farmer,  as  saying:  "  I  have  repeatedly 
seen  instances,  both  of  men  and  women,  who  in  San 
Francisco  could  readily  be  mistaken  for  Chinese, 
their  almond-shaped  eyes,  light  complexion,  and 
long  braided  black  hair  giving  them  a  marked  simi 
larity.''  Linguistic  affinities,  while  they  are  found 
in  Mexico,  especially  in  the  Otomi,  are  more  com 
mon  in  Peru. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  73 

5.  The  Japanese  theory  is  to  us  still  more  plausi 
ble.  Josiah  Priest*  thinks  that  Quetzalcoatl,  the 
great  culture  hero,  that  "white  saintly  personage 
from  the  East,  was  a  Japanese." 

Vallejo,  in  his  History  of  California,  says  there 
were  Japanese  in  that  part  of  Mexico  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest,  and  traces  of  the  Japanese  language 
are  still  found  among  the  coast  tribes.  It  is  also  a 
well-known  fact  that  Japanese  coming  to  Mexico 
can  converse  with  the  Indians  of  the  Hausteca, 
whom  they  resemble  in  stature  and  facial  appear 
ance,  as  readily  as  can  an  Italian  with  a  Spaniard. 
Mr.  Brooks,  in  1875,  published,  in  the  San  Francisco 
Evening  Bulletin,  a  detailed  account  of  forty-one 
particular  instances  of  Japanese  wrecks  along  the 
Pacific,  and  says  that  he  has  the  records  of  over  one 
hundred  such  disasters.  He  also  asserts  that  a  ma 
jority  of  the  survivors  remained  permanently  on  this 
side  of  the  water.  A  well-known  general  in  the 
Mexican  army  is  the  son  of  a  Japanese  mariner, 
who  early  in  this  century  was  driven  in  his  junk  off 
the  coast  of  his  native  land  by  a  storm,  which  con 
tinued  to  rage  till  he  was  finally  picked  up  by  a 
Mexican  vessel  and  landed  in  Mazatlan,  where  he 
lived  and  died. 

The  Hon.  Toshiro  Fujita,  Acting  Japanese  Con- 

*  American  Antiquities,  etc.,  Albany,  1838. 


74  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

sul  General  in  Mexico,  tells  me  that  geologists 
of  his  country  believe  that  formerly  there  existed  a 
strip  of  land,  or  possibly  a  series  of  islands,  between 
California  and  the  ancient  empire  of  the  sun. 

6.  We  have  purposely  left  the  Phoenician  theory 
till  the  last  because  of  its  seeming  importance ;  not 
that  we  consider  the  foregoing  as  improbable,  but 
especially  because  this  antedates  all  other  Asiatic 
theories,  and  its  relation  to  old  Testament  history 
makes  it  of  all-absorbing  interest. 

When  Israel's  King  David  died  and  his  son  had 
succeeded  to  the  throne  King  Hiram  of  Tyre  wrote 
a  letter  of  condolence  to  Solomon  (i  Kings  v).  It  is 
well  known  that  a  warm  friendship  existed  between 
the  two  kings.  Taking  advantage  of  his  friendly 
disposition,  the  young  king  of  Israel  appealed  to 
Hiram  for  help  in  building  the  temple  committed 
to  him  by  his  father  and  also  the  palace  at  Lebanon. 
This  affecting  piece  of  biblical  history  closes  thus : 
"  And  the  king  commanded,  and  they  brought 
great  stones,  costly  stones,  and  hewed  stones,  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  the  house.  And  Solomon's  build 
ers  and  Hiram's  builders  did  hew  them,  and  the 
stone  squarers :  so  they  prepared  timber  and  stones 
to  build  the  house"  (verses  17  and  18). 

From  the  same  chapter  we  learn  that  138,000  Jews 
were  engaged  in  the  work  at  Lebanon,  and  if  an 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  75 

equal  number  of  Phoenicians  were  employed  it  made 
a  great  army  of  276,000  men  felling  cedars,  hewing 
stone,  etc.,  which  great  number  of  men  was  supported 
by  Solomon,  who  gave  to  "  Hiram  twenty  thousand 
measures  of  wheat  for  food  to  his  household,  and 
twenty  measures  of  pure  oil ;  thus  gave  Solomon  to 
Hiram  year  by  year."  This  ancient  reciprocity 
treaty  lasted  for  years,  to  the  mutual  benefit  of  both 
parties  interested.  After  a  while  Solomon  ceded  to 
Hiram  the  important  port  of  Ezion-Geber,  on  the 
Red  Sea.  Here,  some  twenty  years  after  the  begin 
ning  of  their  pleasant  relations,  the  two  kings  built  a 
navy,  "  and  Hiram  sent  in  the  navy  his  servants, 
shipmen  that  had  knowledge  of  the  sea,  with  the 
servants  of  Solomon  "  (i  Kings  ix,  27).  We  are  told 
that  they  went  to  Ophir  for  gold,  that  their  ships 
were  built  large  and  strong,  after  the  pattern  of  the 
ships  of  Tarshish,  and  that  "  once  in  three  years 
came  the  navy  of  Tarshish,  bringing  gold,  and 
silver,  ivory,  and  apes,  and  peacocks  "  (i  Kings 
X,  22). 

Where  was  this  distant  Ophir,  this  "  fruitful  re 
gion  ?"*  Our  commentators  and  encyclopedists 
agree  that  "  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  its  situation." 
The  majority  say  that  it  was  either  in  Arabia,  In 
dia,  or  Africa.  But  an  old  Spanish  author,  Arias 

*Gesenius,  in  McClintock  &  Strong's  Rncyclopcedia. 


76  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Montanus  (b.  1527,  d.  1598),  locates  it  in  Peru,  and 
his  view,  doubtless,  accounts  for  the  following  pas 
sage  in  Ben  Jonson's  Alchemist  (Act  ii,  Scene  i)  : 

"  Come  on,  sir  ;  now  set  your  foot  on  shore 
In  Novo  Orbe.      Here's  the  rich  Peru  ; 
And  there  within,  sir,  are  the  golden  mines, 
Great  Solomon's  Ophir." 

Baron  Humboldt  locates  it  at  Veragua,  United 
States  of  Colombia  ;  and  Fountaine,  in  his  Ho^v  the 
World  Was  Peopled  (pp.  259,  260),  says :  "  The 
Phoenician  Ophir,  or  Ofor,  which  means  in  their  an 
cient  language  the  Western  Country,  was  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  the  land  of  gold." 

Mr.  George  Jones,  devoting  a  whole  volume  to 
the  subject,  brings  the  Phoenicians  first  to  Florida 
and  then  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Yucatan. 

A  most  interesting  paper  appeared  from  the  pen 
of  Thomas  Crawford  Johnston  in  the  Californian 
for  November  and  December,  1892,  which  revives 
and  sustains  with  great  weight  this  Phoenician 
theory.  Mr.  Johnston  resided  for  a  year  and  a  half 
in  the  islands  of  the  South  Pacific.  He  not  only 
quotes  the  biblical  facts  already  referred  to,  but 
marks  out  what  he  believes  to  have  been  the  route 
followed  by  these  most  ancient  and  mysterious  of 
navigators.  This  route,  starting  at  the  head  of  the 
Red  Sea,  comes  down  to  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Man- 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  77 

deb,  and  from  that  to  the  coast  of  India,  on  to  Cey 
lon,  to  Java  and  Sumatra,  thence  to  Malgrave  Island 
and  the  Caroline  Islands,  Tonga,  Samoa,  and  Rap- 
pa,  thence  to  Easter  Island  and  on  to  Mexico  and 
Peru.  He  claims  to  have  found  substructions  on 
several  of  these  islands  identical  with  those  found 
under  the  remnants  of  Solomon's  temple,  especially 
in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  enormous  stones,  weigh 
ing,  in  some  cases,  over  five  tons.  These  substruc 
tions  he  again  connects  with  analogous  ruins  in 
Mexico  and  Peru. 

He  then  quotes  Mr.  Rawlinson's  description  of 
the  Phoenicians,  and  claims  "  it  is  impossible  for  one 
to  spend  even  a  short  time  in  Samoa  without  real 
izing  how  suitable  such  a  description  would  be  if 
applied  to  the  Samoans,  while  each  day's  observa 
tion  of  them,  their  habits  and  customs,  would  only 
deepen  the  conviction  that  the  observer  was  in  con 
tact  with  a  people  whose  social  usages  must,  at 
some  possibly  remote  period,  have  been  in  very 
close  touch  with  Hebrew  institutions." 

He  found  a  tradition  on  every  isle  visited  that  re 
ferred  their  origin  "  to  some  land  lying  in  the  direc 
tion  of  the  setting  sun."  On  one  island  about  mid- 
ocean  he  found  an  old  tower  forty  feet  high  and 
the  ruins  of  an  ancient  and  evidently  once  large 
city.  The  natives  say  that  it  was  occupied  by  "  a 


78  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

powerful  people  called  Anut,  who  had  large  vessels 
in  which  they  made  long  voyages  east  and  west, 
many  moons  being  required  for  these  voyages." 

Coming  to  Mexico,  Mr.  Johnston  finds  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  the  Phoenicians  "  intensified  a 
thousandfold."  Architectural  remains  and  forms 
of  religious  worship  are  clearly  Phoenician.  "  The 
Roman  sacrifice  and  the  idol,  half  man  and  half 
brute,  are  beyond  question  those  of  the  Phoenician 
Baal  or  Moloch."  His  picture  of  the  Aztec  vase 
with  the  fringed  disk  symbol  is  certainly  striking. 
He  then  claims  that  the  great  Calendar  Stone  in  the 
National  Museum  is  "  the  national  monument  of  a 
seafaring  people  in  the  form  of  a  mariner's  com 
pass,"  in  the  center  of  which  are  "  seen  the  faces  of 
Cox,  the  Mexican  Noah,  and  his  wife,  the  first  re 
corded  navigators,  and  underneath  these  the  Aztec 
symbol  for  water."  On  this  point  at  least  he  is  sus 
tained  by  Captain  Hoff,  late  United  States  Consul 
at  Vera  Cruz,  who  on  more  than  one  occasion  elo 
quently  related  his  convictions  on  this  subject  to 
the  lecturer. 

It  is  further  pointed  out  that  the  friendly  and  in 
timate  relations  existing  between  the  ancient  Phoe 
nicians  and  the  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Assyrians, 
Babylonians,  Greeks,  and  Persians  account  for  the 
fact  "  that  in  their  metallurgy  these  motives  are 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MEXICANS.  79 

invariably  either  Egyptian  or  Assyrian,  while  their 
sculptures  usually  showed  a  large  admixture  of 
Greek."  All  this  seems  true  in  Mexico. 

So,  after  summoning  other  analogies,  Mr.  John 
ston  goes  back  to  Ezion-geber.  where  Solomon  and 
Hiram  built  their  navy.  "  These  mariners  were  no 
rude,  uneducated  horde,  but  a  class  of  men  who 
have  passed  beyond  the  merely  animal  tendency  of 
life,  and,  rising  above  fog  and  miasma,  live  in  an 
atmosphere  mainly  intellectual — men  who  dominate 
their  surroundings,  and  in  touching  leave  an  indeli 
ble  trace  of  their  presence  and  influence  behind 
them."  "  The  inhabitants  of  Zidon  and  Arvad  were 
thy  mariners:  thy  wise  men,  O  Tyrus,  that  were 
in  thee,  were  thy  pilots  "  (Ezek.  xxvii,  8). 

The  commercial  supremacy  of  these  Phoenician 
merchants  in  ancient  times  is  a  well-established  fact. 
Their  trading  posts  were  everywhere  found  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  out  on  the  Atlantic  as  far  north 
as  the  "  Tin  Islands,"  as  England  was  then  called. 
That  their  route  to  Ceylon  was  a  well-beaten  one 
no  one  will  deny.  Neither  of  these  routes  required 
the  time  assigned  in  sacred  writ  to  the  voyages 
made  at  the  time  of  Solomon's  reign.  Architec 
tural  remains,  traditions,  manners  and  customs,  re 
ligious  beliefs  and  practices  (and  here  too  we  see  the 
Phoenician  monotheist,  in  the  process  of  time,  de- 


8o  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

veloping  into  the  polytheist),  the  great  Calendar  or 
Compass  Stone,  and  the  testimony  of  some  English 
and  not  a  few  Mexican  authors,  justify  Mr.  Johnston 
in  landing  his  Phcenican  navigators,  as  does  also 
Ordonez,  on  the  coasts  of  Peru  and  Mexico  about 
1000  B.  C.,  which  date  corresponds  with  the  dates 
given  in  the  Bible  narrative  of  the  historic  voyages 
of  Hiram  and  Solomon  and  the  building  of  the  Jew 
ish  temple.* 

*  Here  the  lecturer  exhibited  a  model  of  the  Aztec  Calendar  Stone, 
and  a  piece  of  a  large  vase  in  which  the  sacred  fire  was  kept.  This 
has  been  recently  unearthed  near  Tezcocu 


LECTURE  III. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS, 

7 


LECTURE  III. 
PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS. 

WE  have  no  pet  theory  concerning  the  first 
inhabitants  of  Mexico,  but  believe  there  is 
a  foundation  of  truth  in  several  of  the  theories  men 
tioned  in  the  preceding  lecture. 

No  one  can  travel  along  the  Pacific  coast  and 
throughout  the  territory  of  our  next-door  neighbor 
without  finding  everywhere  evidence  of  the  presence 
of  Mongolian  blood,  languages  and  religions,  man 
ners  and  customs.  It  seems  probable  that  the  wars 
of  the  Tartars  drove  many  a  colony  across -the  strait 
or  the  ocean  to  this  continent. 

The  Phoenician  navigators  perhaps  antedated 
these,  while  from  the  mysterious  Atlantis,  so  long 
since  submerged  beneath  the  ocean  billows,  no 
madic  tribes  may  have  spread  themselves  far  and 
near  over  the  continent,  contemporaneous  with,  or 
even  prior  to,  the  construction  of  Solomon's  temple. 
No  doubt  Clavigero  is  right  in  saying  that  the 
Americans  descended  from  different  nations. 

But  Gregorio  Garcia,  who  was  so  narrow-minded 
that  he  could  see  nothing  except  through  Spanish 


84  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

spectacles,  and  thought  all  Mexicans  sprang  from 
one  family,  provokes  a  smile  from  some  of  his  argu 
ments,  especially  when  he  tries  to  explain  away  the 
multiplicity  of  tongues  by  saying  that  "  Satan 
prompted  the  Indians  to  learn  various  languages  in 
order  to  prevent  the  extension  of  the  true  faith." 

This  is  not  so  strange  when  we  recall  the  equally 
amusing  fact  that  the  president  of  Yale  College, 
Rev.  Ezra  Stiles,  D.D.,  in  1783,  when  preaching 
before  the  governor  of  the  State  of  Connecticut 
appealed  to  the  famous  Dighton  Rock,  in  Narra- 
gansett  Bay,  graven,  as  he  believed,  in  the  old 
Punic  or  Phoenician  character  and  language,  "  in 
proof  that  the  Indians  were  of  the  accursed  seed  of 
Canaan,  and  were  to  be  dispelled  and  rooted  out 
by  the  European  descendants  of  Japhet."  * 

Such  statements  are  as  smile-provoking  as  the 
one  so  frequently  quoted  from  Mexican  mythology 
by  certain  materialistic  authors  who  strive  to  give 
it  the  color  of  authority,  and,  leaning  to  the  autoch- 
thonic  theory  of  the  race  on  this  continent,  calmly 
cite  their  origin  as  follows :  "  The  races  descended 
from  six  brothers,  sons  of  the  old  Ixtacmixcohuatl 
and  of  his  wife,  Ilaneuey." 

Ixtacmixcohuatl  means  a  white  cloud  in  the 
shape  of  a  snake,  and  refers  to  the  Milky  Way  (via 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  74. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  85 

lacted).  Ilaneuey  means  old  frog,  and  rana,  or  frog, 
is  the  earth  ;  thus  the  mother  is  the  old  earth.  Now 
one  of  the  sons  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth  was 
Otomitl,  the  first  of  the  human  race.* 

Who  does  not  see  here,  even  in  this  myth,  evi 
dence  that  the  first  Otomis  had,  somehow,  heard 
something  of  the  God  of  heaven  stooping  down  to 
the  garden  of  Eden  and  making  man  out  of  "  the 
dust  of  the  earth  ?  "  But  when  a  recognized  Church 
author  solemnly  asserts  that  angels  from  heaven 
picked  up  Asiatics  by  the  hair  of  the  head  and, 
safely  conveying  them  across  the  Pacific,  set  them 
on  Mexican  terra  firma  to  inhabit  this  continent, 
and  the  learned  Father  Duran,  after  years  of  study, 
reaches  the  conclusion  that  a  divine  revelation  is 
necessary  to  arrive  at  the  truth  of  this  matter,  cer 
tainly  a  novice  may  well  hesitate  to  be  too  positive 
in  the  advocacy  of  any  single  theory. 

Besides,  whether  primitive  Mexican  races  came 
from  Africa  or  Asia,  or  from  both,  the  fact  remains 
that  they  were  there,  and  there  ages  before  Ferdi 
nand  ever  ruled  or  Columbus  dreamed  of  seeking 
new  worlds.  Indeed,  it  was  quite  likely  that  their 
coming  was  contemporaneous  with  the  first  foot 
prints  of  man  in  Europe,  and  possibly  when  their 
ancient  hieroglyphs  and  picture  paintings  are  fully 

*  Mexico  d  Traves  de  los  Siglos,  vol.  i,  p.  65. 


86  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

deciphered  we  may  have  a  history  as  old  as  that  of 
India,  China,  or  Egypt. 

Perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  recently  pub 
lished  histories  on  Mexico  is  a  monumental  work 
of  five  large  folio  volumes  entitled  Mexico  A  Traves 
de  los  Sighs — Mexico  Through  the  Ages.  It  is  the 
combined  effort  of  five  of  the  best  native  writers  of 
present  times,*  who  represent  in  themselves  nearly 
every  school  of  thought  in  the  country. 

This  valuable  work,  in  common  with  most  histo 
ries  of  Mexico,  opens  with  the  assertion  that  these 
races  originally  inhabited  the  country  lying  to  our 
south :  the  Otomi  in  central  Mexico  ;  the  Maya- 
Quiche,  to  the  south,  especially  in  Yucatan,  and 
migrating  tribes  in  the  north  generally  known  as  the 
Nahuas.  The  existence  of  these  races  at  a  very 
early  period,  perhaps  three  thousand  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  as  some  writers  claim,  is  proven 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  peculiar  make  of  hatch 
ets,  knives,  and  arrowheads,  of  obsidian,  serpentine 
stone,  and  silex,  and  other  hard  substances  found 
wherever  these  races  flourished  is  evidence  of  a  very 
remote  period. 

Sefior  Orozco  y  Barra  lays  much  stress  on  his 
linguistic  research,  and  from  it  not  only  claims 

*  Juan  de  Dios  Arias,  Alfredo  Chavero,  General  Vicente  Riva 
Palacio,  Jose  Maria  Vigil,  Julio  Zarate. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  87 

great  antiquity  for  the  Mayas,  but  finds  fifteen  dif 
ferent  languages  or  dialects  in  Central  America  and 
the  West  India  islands  related  to  the  Maya  language. 
The  amulets  and  little  idols,  also  used  as  orna 
ments  on  the  person,  which  are  being  unearthed 
in  many  parts,  notably  in  Tulyahualco  and  Teotihu- 
acan,  both  of  which  cities  were  doubtless  buried 
ages  ago  by  volcanic  eruptions,  but  arc  now  yielding 
up  their  long-hidden  treasures,  are  all  of  rudimen 
tary  state  and  prove  the  backwardness  of  a  primi 
tive  age.  In  some  parts  these  amulets  and  idols 
represent  a  later  period,  and  are  found  of  greatly 
superior  workmanship  and  made  of  obsidian,  of  cop 
per,  and  of  gold.*  The  palaces  of  Palenque,  Mitla, 
Papantla,  and  others  must  have  been  built  in  those 
remote  ages.  The  pyramids  of  Cholula  and  Teoti- 
huacan  have  withstood  earthquakes  and  kept  their 
heads  above  the  vomiting  of  angry  volcanoes  for 
unnumbered  cycles.  The  fossils  of  mastodons,  ele 
phants,  oxen,  zebras,  horses,  and  other  animals 
frequently  found  are  mute  but  powerful  witnesses 
to  the  animal  life  of  the  continent  in  the  remote  past, 
while  human  skeletons  of  immense  size,  exhumed 
chiefly  on  the  Gulf  Coast,  give  rise  to  the  fables, 
perpetuated  during  the  colonial  period,  of  the  ex- 

*The   lecturer  exhibited   numerous  amulets,   idols,  and  obsidian 
articles  unearthed  in  different  localities. 


88  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

istence  of  giants  contemporaneous  with  or  prior  to 
the  times  of  the  Otomis,  the  Mayas,  and  the  Na- 
huas.  Of  these,  then,  the  Maya-Quiches  were  the 
most  ancient.  Tradition,  records,  and  architectural 
remains  all  combine  to  testify  that  this  great  family 
is  the  oldest  on  the  continent  ;  at  least,  if  not 
the  oldest,  the  first  of  which  any  record  can  be 
found.  In  the  fertile  valley  of  the  River  Usuma- 
sinta,  south  of  the  Tehuantepec  Isthmus,  was  the  cra 
dle  of  American  civilization,  "  a  civilization  which 
was  old  and  ripe  when  the  Toltecs  came  in  contact 
with  it.  Under  the  shadow  of  the  magnificent  and 
mysterious  ruins  of  Palenque  a  people  grew  to  power 
who  spread  into  Guatemala  and  Honduras,  north 
ward  toward  Anahuac  and  southward  into  Yucatan, 
and  for  a  period  of  probably  twenty-five  centuries 
exercised  a  sway  which  at  one  time  excited  the 
envy  and  fear  of  its  neighbors. 

"  We  are  fully  aware  of  the  uncertainty  which 
attaches  itself  to  tradition  in  general,  and  of  the 
caution  with  which  it  should  be  accepted  in  treat 
ing  of  the  foundations  of  history  ;  but  still,  with  ref 
erence  to  the  origin  and  growth  of  Old  World  na 
tions,  nothing  better  offers  itself  in  many  instances 
than  suspicious  legends.  The  histories  of  the  Egyp 
tians,  the  Trojans,  the  Greeks,  and  of  even  ancient 
Rome  rest  on  no  surer  footing.  It  is  certain  that 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  89 

while  the  legendary  history  of  any  nation  may  be 
confused,  exaggerated,  and  besides  full  of  breaks, 
still  there  are  some  main  and  fundamental  facts 
out  of  which  it  has  grown,  and  this,  we  think,  is 
especially  true  of  the  New  World  tradition."  * 

The  founder  of  this  great  empire  was  one  Votan, 
who  arrived  on  these  western  shores  about  1000 
B.  C.  Of  him  Clavigero  writes  :  "  They  say  that  Vo 
tan,  the  grandson  of  that  respectable  old  man  who 
built  the  great  ark  to  save  himself  and  family  from 
the  deluge,  and  one  of  those  who  undertook  the 
building  of  that  lofty  edifice  which  was  to  reach  up 
to  heaven,  went  by  express  command  of  the  Lord 
to  people  that  land."  f 

To  this  Professor  Short  adds :  "  The  tradition  of 
Votan,  the  founder  of  the  Maya  culture,  though 
somewhat  warped,  probably  by  having  passed 
through  priestly  hands,  is  nevertheless  one  of  the 
most  valuable  pieces  of  information  which  we  have 
concerning  the  ancient  Americans.  Without  it  our 
knowledge  of  the  origin  of  the  Mayas  would  be  a 
hopeless  blank,  and  the  ruins  of  Palenque  would  be 
more  a  mystery  than  ever.  According  to  this  tra 
dition  Votan  came  from  the  East,  from  Valum 
Chivim,  by  the  way  of  Valum  Votan,  from  across 

*  Short,   p.  204. 

f  Hist.  ant.  Je  Mexico  (English  translation,  1807),  vol.  5. 


90  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  sea  by  divine  command,  to  apportion  the  land 
of  the  new  continent  to  seven  families  which  he 
brought  with  him."* 

His  exact  starting-point  and  the  means  by  which 
he  reached  the  New  World  cannot  be  proven.  He 
is  said  to  have  made  four  journeys  to  his  native 
land,  and  finally  to  have  mysteriously  disappeared. 
His  achievements,  while  here,  were  as  great  as  those 
we  read  of  in  connection  with  any  ancient  hero. 
His  great  city,  "  Nachan  "  (city  of  the  serpents),  is 
believed  by  many  to  be  identical  with  Palenque. 
So  rapid  was  the  growth  of  his  empire  that  Votan 
founded  three  tributary  monarchies.  Toward  the 
close  of  his  career  he  wrote  a  book  in  order  to  re 
cord  his  deeds  and  prove  that  he  was  a  "  chane," 
or  serpent.  This  work  was  scrupulously  guarded 
by  the  people  of  Tacoaloya,  in  Soconusco,  for  many 
generations,  but  finally  discovered  by  the  Bishop  of 
Chiapas,  Francisco  Nuflez  de  la  Vega.  It  was  in 
the  Tzendal  language.  By  the  aid  of  an  Indian  he 
managed  to  read  a  part  of  it,  and  after  publishing 
in  his  Constituciones  some  general  statements  about 
Votan  and  his  having  seen  the  Tower  of  Babel,  like 
a  true  son  of  the  Church  and  a  genuine  Vandal  the 
old  bishop  committed  the  precious  document  to  the 
flames,  in  1691. 

*  North  Americans  of  Antiquity,  p.  204. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  91 

Other  copies,  however,  seem  to  have  gotten  into 
existence ;  for  Ramon  de  Ordofiez,  of  Chiapas,  had 
one  as  late  as  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and,  like  the  one  above  referred  to,  had  for  its  title, 
Proof  That  I  am  a  Culcbra ;  that  is,  a  snake, 
which  title  he  proves  in  the  body  of  the  work 
by  saying  that  "  he  is  a  Culebra  because  he  is 
Chivim." 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  symbol  of  life 
and  power  among  the  Mexicans  and  Central 
Americans  has  always  been  a  serpent.  Of  this  one 
is  constantly  reminded  in  going  through  the  Na 
tional  Museum  in  the  capital. 

Pablo  Feliz  Cabrera,  in  speaking  of  the  movements 
of  the  children  of  Israel,  says  in  his  Teatro  Critico : 
"  Others  had  their  dwellings  about  the  skirts  of 
Mount  Hermon,  beyond  Jordan  to  the  eastward  of 
Canaan.  Of  these  last  were  Cadmus  and  his  wife, 
Hermione  or  Hermonia,  both  memorable  in  sacred 
as  well  as  profane  history,  as  their  exploits  occa 
sioned  their  being  exalted  to  the  rank  of  deities, 
while  in  regard  to  their  metamorphosis  into  snakes 
(culebras),  mentioned  by  Ovid  (Metam.,  lib.  iii),  their 
being  Hivites  may  have  given  rise  to  this  fabulous 
transmutation,  the  name  in  the  Phoenician  language 
implying  a  snake,  which  the  ancient  Hebrew  writ 
ers  suppose  to  have  been  given  from  this  people 


92  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

being  accustomed  to  live  in  caves  underground  like 
snakes." 

A  little  further  on  in  his  book  Cabrera  reaches 
the  conclusion  that  the  Votanites  were  Carthagin 
ians.  This  conjecture  of  his  may  throw  some  light 
upon  this  strange  and  wonderfully  mysterious  peo 
ple,  concerning  whom  no  student  of  American  his 
tory  can  afford  to  be  indifferent.  For  while,  as  Pro 
fessor  Short  says,  "  some  of  the  details  of  the 
Votanic  tradition  are  not  worthy  of  a  moment's 
consideration,  it  is  quite  certain  that  in  the  gen 
eral  facts  we  have  a  key  to  the  origin  of  what  all 
Americanists  agree  in  pronouncing  the  oldest  civil 
ization  on  this  continent." 

Sefior  Orozco  y  Barra  seems  convinced  that  this 
people  had  their  earliest  home  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States,  that  they  passed  from 
Florida  into  Cuba,  and  thence  into  Yucatan,  while 
some,  Pimentel  among  others,  find  their  early  home 
in  the  valley  of  our  own  Mississippi. 

We  have  called  them  Maya-Quiches.  It  does  not 
seem  quite  clear  whether  a  branch  of  the  Maya  re 
ceived  the  name  Quiches,  or  whether  the  Quiches 
amalgamated  with  the  Mayas.  Professor  Short 
thinks  them  a  branch  of  the  great  Maya  family 
but  developing  their  own  institutions,  dialects,  etc. 

Sefior  Pimentel  says  that  the  name  Quiche  was 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  93 

applied  to  the  first  empire  of  Palenque,  and  signified 
"  many  trees,"  and  that  it  was  employed  by  the 
"  innumerable  families  of  different  nations  which 
composed  it,  to  symbolize  its  various  branches." 

"  The  tradition  of  their  origin  states  that  they 
came  from  the  far  East,  across  immense  tracts  of 
land  and  water ;  that  in  their  former  home  they 
had  multiplied  considerably  and  lived  without 
civilization  and  with  but  few  wants;  they  paid  no 
tribute,  spoke  a  common  language,  did  not  bow 
down  to  wood  and  stone,  but,  lifting  their  eyes 
toward  heaven,  observed  the  will  of  their  Creator  ; 
they  attended  with  respect  the  rising  of  the  sun, 
and  saluted  with  their  invocations  the  morning 
star ;  with  loving  and  obedient  hearts  they  ad 
dressed  their  prayers  to  Heaven  for  the  gift  of  off 
spring:  'Hail,  Creator  and  Maker!  regard  us, 
attend  us.  Heart  of  Heaven,  Heart  of  Earth,  do 
not  forsake  us  ;  do  not  leave  us.  God  of  Heaven 
and  Earth,  Heart  of  Heaven,  Heart  of  Earth,  con 
sider  our  posterity  always.  Accord  us  repose,  a 
glorious  repose,  peace  and  prosperity,  justice,  life, 
and  our  being.  Grant  to  us,  O,  Hurakan,  to  be 
enlightened  and  fruitful,  thou  who  comprehendest 
all  things  great  and  small ! ' 

The  National  Book  of  the  Quiches  is  one  of  the 
richest  mythological  legacies  left  us  by  primitive 


94  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

people.  It  is  known  by  the  name  of  Popol  Vuh,  and 
for  what  we  know  of  it  we  are  indebted  to  Dr.  C. 
Scherzer,  of  Vienna,  and  Abbe  Brasseur  de  Bour- 
bourg,  as  well  as  to  a  Dominican  father  named 
Ximenes,  who  was  curate  in  the  little  Indian  town 
of  Chichicastenango,  among  the  mountains  of 
Guatemala.  This  Spanish  curate,  "  noted  for  his 
learning  and  love  of  the  truth,"  died  in  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  left  many  valu 
able  manuscripts.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
his  expose  of  the  ill-treatment  of  the  Indians  by 
the  colonial  authorities  was  sufficient  cause  for  their 
partial  destruction  and  total  suppression.  Some, 
however,  after  remaining  hid  for  long  years  in  an 
obscure  corner  of  the  Dominican  convent  of  Gaute- 
mala,  came  to  light  on  the  suppression  of  all 
religious  orders,  and  were  deposited  in  the  library 
of  the  University  of  San  Carlos  in  that  city.  In 
1854  the  traveler  and  author,  Dr.  Scherzer,  found 
there  this  famous  Popol  Viih,  as  translated  from  the 
Quiche  into  Spanish  by  Father  Ximenes,  and  this 
he  carefully  copied  and  published  in  Vienna  in 
1856. 

Abbe  de  Bourbourg  says  that  Ximenes  dis 
covered  it  toward  the  last  of  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury,  but,  being  dissatisfied  with  Ximenes's  transla 
tion,  he  went  himself  to  live  among  the  descendants 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  95 

of  the  Maya-Quiches  till  he  "  elaborated  a  new  and 
literal  translation." 

Bancroft  believes  the  native  Quiche  to  have 
been  so  thoroughly  under  the  influence  of  the 
Spanish  friar  that,  "  consciously  or  unconsciously,  a 
tinge  of  biblical  expression  has  influenced  the  form 
of  the  narrative."  But  he  adopts  the  language  and 
conclusions  of  Professor  Max  Miiller  in  saying^ 
"  Much  remains  in  these  American  traditions  which 
is  so  different  from  anything  else  in  the  national 
literatures  of  other  countries  that  we  may  safely 
treat  it  as  the  genuine  growth  of  the  intellectual 
soil  of  America."  In  his  third  volume  on  Native 
Races  Bancroft  gives  an  excellent  condensation  of 
the  translation  of  Popol  Vuh,  referred  to  by  both 
Bourbourg  and  Scherzer.  Perhaps  the  most  inter 
esting  of  all  is  the  Quiche  account  of  the  creation. 
"  In  rude,  strange  eloquence  and  poetic  originality 
it  is  one  of  the  rarest  relics  of  aboriginal  thought." 
The  English  translation  runs  as  follows : 

"And  the  heaven  was  formed,  and  all  the  signs 
thereof  set  in  their  angle  and  alignment,  and  its 
boundaries  fixed  toward  the  four  winds  by  the 
Creator  and  Former,  and  Mother  and  Father  of  life 
and  existence — he  by  whom  all  move  and  breathe, 
the  Father  and  Cherisher  of  the  peace  of  nations 
and  of  the  civilization  of  his  people — he  whose 


96  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

wisdom  has  projected  the  excellence  of  all  that  is 
on  the  earth,  or  in  the  lakes,  or  in  the  sea. 

"  Behold  the  first  word  and  the  first  discourse. 
There  was  as  yet  no  man,  nor  any  animal,  nor  bird, 
nor  fish,  nor  crawfish,  nor  any  pit,  nor  ravine,  nor 
green  herb,  nor  any  tree ;  nothing  was  but  the 
firmament.  The  face  of  the  earth  had  not  yet  ap 
peared — only  the  peaceful  sea  and  all  the  space  of 
heaven.  There  was  nothing  yet  joined  together, 
nothing  that  clung  to  anything  else  ;  nothing  that 
balanced  itself,  that  made  the  least  rustling,  that 
made  a  sound  in  the  heaven.  There  was  nothing 
that  stood  up  ;  nothing  but  the  quiet  water,  but  the 
sea,  calm  and  alone  in  its  boundaries ;  nothing 
existed  ;  nothing  but  immobility  and  silence,  in  the 
darkness,  in  the  night." 

After  the  creation  of  the  vegetables  and  lower 
animal  life  the  narration  continues : 

"  Again  the  gods  took  counsel  together  ;  they  de 
termined  to  make  man.  So  they  made  a  man  of 
clay,  and  when  they  had  made  him  they  saw  that  it 
was  not  good.  He  was  without  cohesion,  without 
consistence,  motionless,  strengthless,  inept,  watery; 
he  could  not  move  his  head,  his  face  looked  but  one 
way ;  his  sight  was  restricted,  he  could  not  look  be 
hind  him;  he  had  been  endowed  with  language, but  he 
had  no  intelligence,  so  he  was  consumed  in  the  water. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  97 

"Again  is  there  counsel  in  heaven:  Met  us 
make  an  intelligent  being  who  shall  adore  and 
invoke  us.'  It  was  decided  that  a  man  should  be 
made  of  wood  and  a  woman  of  a  kind  of  pith. 
They  were  made  ;  but  the  result  was  in  no  way  sat 
isfactory.  They  moved  about  perfectly  well,  it  is 
true  ;  they  increased  and  multiplied  ;  they  peopled 
the  world  with  sons  and  daughters,  little  wooden 
manikins  like  themselves ;  but  still  the  heart  and 
the  intelligence  were  wanting  ;  they  held  no  memory 
of  their  Maker  and  Former;  they  lived  a  useless 
existence  ;  they  lived  as  the  beasts  live  ;  they  for 
got  the  Heart  of  Heaven.  They  were  but  an  essay, 
an  attempt  at  men  ;  they  had  neither  blood,  nor 
substance,  nor  moisture,  nor  fat ;  their  cheeks  were 
shriveled,  their  feet  and  hands  dried  up  ;  their  flesh 
languished. 

"Then  was  the  Heart  of  Heaven  wroth,  and  he 
sent  ruin  and  destruction  upon  those  ingrates;  he 
rained  upon  them  night  and  day  from  heaven  with 
a  thick  resin,  and  the  earth  was  darkened.  And 
the  men  went  mad  with  terror ;  they  tried  to  mount 
upon  the  roofs,  and  the  houses  fell ;  they  tried  to 
climb  the  trees,  and  the  trees  shook  them  far  from 
their  branches  ;  they  tried  to  hide  in  the  caves  and 
the  dens  of  the  earth,  but  these  closed  their  holes 
against  them.  The  bird  Xecotcovach  came  to  tear 
8 


98  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

out  their  eyes,  and  the  Camalotz  cut  off  their  head, 
and  the  Cotzbalam  devoured  their  flesh,  and  the 
Tecumbalam  broke  and  bruised  their  bones  to  pow 
der.  Thus  were  they  all  devoted  to  chastisement 
and  destruction,  save  only  a  few  who  were  preserved 
as  memorials  of  the  wooden  men  that  had  been  ; 
and  these  now  exist  in  the  woods  as  little  apes. 

"  Once  more  are  the  gods  in  council ;  in  the  dark 
ness,  in  the  night  of  a  desolated  universe,  do  they 
commune  together  ;  '  Of  what  shall  we  make  man  ?  ' 
And  the  Creator  and  Former  made  four  perfect 
men,  and  wholly  of  yellow  and  white  maize  (corn) 
was  their  flesh  composed.  These  were  the  names 
of  the  four  men  that  were  made :  the  name  of  the 
first  was  Balam-Quitze  ;  of  the  second,  Balam-Agab  ; 
of  the  third,  Mahucutah  ;  and  of  the  fourth,  Iqi-Ba- 
lam.  They  had  neither  father  nor  mother,  neither 
were  they  made  by  the  ordinary  agents  in  the  work  of 
creation  ;  but  their  coming  into  existence  was  a  mira 
cle  extraordinary,  wrought  by  the  special  interven 
tion  of  Him  who  is  preeminently  the  Creator.  Veri 
ly,  at  last,  were  there  found  men  worthy  of  their  origin 
and  their  destiny ;  verily,  at  last,  did  the  gods  look 
on  beings  who  could  see  with  their  eyes,  and  handle 
with  their  hands,  and  understand  \vith  their  hearts. 
Grand  of  countenance  and  broad  of  limb,  the  four 
sires  of  our  race  stood  up  under  the  white  rays  of 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  99 

the  morning  star — sole  light  as  yet  of  the  primeval 
world — stood  up  and  looked.  Their  great  clear 
eyes  swept  rapidly  over  all ;  they  saw  the  woods 
and  the  rocks,  the  lakes  and  the  sea,  the  mountains 
and  the  valleys,  and  the  heavens  that  were  above 
all ;  and  they  comprehended  all  and  admired  ex 
ceedingly.  Then  they  returned  thanks  to  those 
who  had  made  the  world  and  all  that  therein  was  : 
1  We  offer  up  our  thanks,  twice — yea,  verily,  thrice. 
We  have  received  life  ;  we  speak,  we  walk,  we  taste  ; 
we  hear  and  understand ;  we  know  both  that  which 
is  near  and  that  which  is  far  off;  we  see  all  things, 
great  and  small,  and  in  all  the  heaven  and  earth. 
Thanks,  then,  Maker  and  Former,  Father  and  Moth 
er  of  our  life  !  We  have  been  created  ;  we  are.' 

"  But  the  gods  were  not  wholly  pleased  with  this 
thing;  heaven,  they  thought,  had  overshot  its 
mark  ;  these  men  were  too  perfect ;  knew,  under 
stood,  and  saw  too  much.  Therefore  there  was 
counsel  again  in  heaven  :  '  What  shall  we  do  with 
man  now?  It  is  not  good,  this  that  we  see  ;  these 
are  as  gods ;  they  would  make  themselves  equal 
with  us  ;  lo,  they  know  all  things,  great  and  small. 
Let  us  now  contract  their  sight,  so  that  they  may 
see  only  a  little  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  be 
content.'  Thereupon  the  Heart  of  Heaven  breathed 
a  cloud  over  the  pupil  of  the  eyes  of  men,  and  a 


ioo  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

veil  came  over  it  as  when  one  breathes  on  the  face 
of  a  mirror.  Thus  was  the  globe  of  the  eye  dark 
ened  ;  neither  was  that  which  was  far  off  clear  to  it 
any  more,  but  only  that  which  was  near. 

"Then  the  four  men  slept,  and  there  was  counsel 
in  heaven  ;  and  four  women  were  made.  To  Balam- 
Quitze  was  allotted  Caha-Paluma  to  wife  ;  to  Balam- 
Agab,  Chomiha;  to  Mahucutah,  Tzununiha ;  and  to 
Iqi-Balam,  Cakixaha.  Now  the  women  were  ex 
ceedingly  fair  to  look  upon  ;  and  when  the  men 
awoke  their  hearts  were  glad  because  of  the 
women. 

"  They  had  as  yet  no  worship  save  the  breathing 
of  the  instinct  of  their  soul,  as  yet  no  altars  to  the 
gods ;  only — and  is  there  not  a  whole  idyl  in  the 
simple  words? — only  they  gazed  up  into  heaven, 
not  knowing  what  they  had  come  so  far  to  do ! 
They  were  filled  with  love,  with  obedience,  and 
with  fear;  and  lifting  their  eyes  toward  heaven 
they  made  their  requests  " — in  the  following  lan 
guage,  part  of  which  might  have  been  used  by 
King  David  himself: 

"  Hail !  O  Creator,  O  Former !  thou  that  hearest 
and  understandest  us !  abandon  us  not,  forsake  us 
not !  O  God,  thou  that  art  in  heaven  and  on  the  earth, 
O  Heart  of  Heaven,  O  Heart  of  Earth !  give  us 
descendants  and  a  posterity  as  long  as  the  light 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  101 

endure.  Give  us  to  walk  always  in  an  open  road, 
in  a  path  without  snares  ;  to  lead  happy,  quiet,  and 
peaceable  lives,  free  of  all  reproach."  It  was  thus 
they  spake,  living  tranquilly,  invoking  the  return 
of  the  light,  waiting  the  rising  of  the  sun,  watching 
the  star  of  the  morning,  precursor  of  the  sun. 

The  account  of  their  migrations  which  follows  is 
so  confused  as  to  make  it  improbable  that  the  loca 
tions  named  should  be  fully  identified.  But  it  is 
clear  that  in  their  original  home  they  became  weary 
of  watching  for  the  rising  sun,  that  is,  the  coming 
of  temporal  power.  Then  it  was  the  four  men 
started  on  their  journey  to  Tulanzuiva,  the  seven 
caves  or  ravines.  On  their  arrival  a  different  deity 
was  assigned  to  each.  Henceforward  their  worship 
is  more  material  and  ceremonial. 

Tulan  was  found  to  have  a  colder  climate  than 
their  eastern  home,  and  the  god  Tohil  created  arti 
ficial  heat.  "  But  incessant  rains,  accompanied  with 
hail,  extinguished  all  their  fires,  which  were  again 
rekindled  repeatedly  by  the  fire  god."  But  Tulan, 
with  its  rains,  extreme  cold,  dampness,  and  famines, 
followed  by  the  confusion  of  tongues,  proved  an  un 
favorable  locality  for  their  permanent  abode.  So 
at  last  this  mysterious  land  of  the  seven  caves,  this 
Tulan,  was  abandoned,  and  under  the  leadership  of 
Tohil  they  migrated  through  dense  forests,  over 


io2  SKETCHES  OF  .MEXICO. 

high  mountains,  through  a  long  sea,  which  parted 
at  their  coming,  and  by  a  rough  and  pebbly  shore, 
till  at  last,  their  tribulations  ended,  they  reached 
the  beautiful  Hacavitz — a  mountain  named  after 
their  god. 

"  Here  they  were  informed  that  the  sun  would 
appear,  and  as  a  consequence  the  four  progenitors 
of  the  race  and  all  the  people  rejoiced.  Here  was 
everything  beauteous  and  gladdening.  The  morn 
ing  star  shed  forth  a  resplendent  brightness,  and  the 
sun  itself  at  last  appeared,  though  then  it  had  not 
the  warmth  which  it  possessed  at  a  later  day.  Be 
fore  the  light  of  the  sun,  however,  the  gods  of  Tohil, 
Avilix,  and  Hacavitz,  together  with  the  tigers  and 
lions  and  reptiles,  were  changed  into  stone." 

To  interpret  this  paragraph,  which  is  greatly  con 
densed,  is  a  difficult  undertaking;  still,  there  are 
certain  facts  which  seem  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  in 
telligent  speculation.  The  language  is  extremely 
figurative  throughout  the  narrative,  and  especially  so 
here.  Their  worship  of  the  morning  star  at  an 
early  period  seems  to  connect  them  with  the  Medi 
terranean  people  of  the  Old  World.  The  allusions 
to  the  sun  not  yet  having  come  may  be  retrospec 
tive,  indicating  that  the  worship  of  the  sun  had  not 
been  adopted  at  that  early  date,  or  it  may  indicate 
that  the  period  of  national  strength  had  not  dawned. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  103 

The  fact  that  the  morning  star  shone  more  bril 
liantly  on  Mount  Hacavitz  than  at  Tulan  (the  seven 
caves)  may  mean  either  that  the  worship  of  the  star 
was  more  specially  celebrated,  or  it  may  have  refer 
ence  to  an  astronomical  fact,  that  the  star  itself  was 
more  luminous,  and  furnish  evidence  in  harmony 
with  the  statements  of  the  narrative  that  Mount 
Hacavitz  was  a  more  southern  location  than  the 
tempestuous  Tulan. 

The  petrifaction  of  the  three  tribal  gods  may 
have  been  the  result  of  an  age  of  peace  and  pros 
perity  which  offered  an  opportunity  for  developing 
their  cultus  ;  or,  upon  the  other  hand,  if  the  coming 
of  the  sun  refers  to  the  advent  of  a  new  religion,  that 
which  is  known  to  have  prevailed  among  the  Nahuas, 
the  old  gods  may  have  been  sculptured  in  stone,  that 
their  national  character  and  deeds  might  not  be  for 
gotten  before  the  increasing  importance  of  the  new 
faith.  There  they  instituted  sacrifices  of  beasts  to 
the  three  stone  gods  Tohil,  Avilix,  and  Hacavitz  ; 
they  even  drew  blood  from  their  own  bodies  and 
offered  it  to  them. 

"  Finally,  not  content  with  these,  the  first  four  men, 
led  by  Balam-Quitze,  instituted  human  sacrifices. 
Captives  were  taken  from  native  tribes,  kidnapping 
was  practiced  extensively,  until  the  hostility  of 
their  neighbors  broke  forth  into  open  war.  The 


io4  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

contest,  however,  resulted  favorably  to  the  Quiches, 
and  the  surrounding  tribes  became  subject  to  the 
victorious  power.  In  Hacavitz  they  composed  a 
national  song  called  the  Kamucu  (We  see),  a  memo 
rial  of  their  misfortunes  in  Tulan — a  lament  for  the 
loss  of  so  many  of  their  people  in  that  unfortunate 
locality.  This  loss  is  described  as  occasioned  by  a 
portion  of  their  race  being  left  behind,  rather  than 
as  the  result  of  the  misfortunes  which  attended 
them  there.  At  last,  at  the  noonday  of  their 
national  glory,  it  came  to  pass  that  the  ancestors 
of  their  race,  Balam-Quitze,  died — the  men  who 
came  from  the  East,  from  across  the  sea,  died — and 
their  remains  were  enveloped  in  a  great  bundle  and 
preserved  as  memorials  of  the  ancestors  of  the  race. 
Then  the  Quiches  sang  the  sad  Kamucu,  and 
mourned  the  loss  of  their  leaders  and  that  por~ 
tion  of  their  race  which  they  left  behind  them  in 
Tulan." 

The  exact  location  of  Tulan  is  a  subject  of  dis 
pute  among  historians.  Four  different  places  with 
this  same  name  are  certainly  mentioned  in  Popol 
Vuhy  two  across  the  sea  and  two  on  this  continent. 
Orozco  y  Barra  is  doubtless  right  in  locating  one  at 
about  fifty  miles  north  of  the  present  capital  of  Mex 
ico,  and  which  place  in  these  times  is  called  Tula,  a 
place,  by  the  way,  where  fire  is  still  needed,  and 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  105 

which  corresponds  in  other  respects  to  the  descrip 
tion  of  Tolan  in  the  ancient  National  Book. 

The  other  and  later  Tolan  was  doubtless  in  the 
State  of  Chiapas,  near  the  ancient  city  of  Xibalba. 
In  the  Tolan  north  of  Anahuac  (what  is  now  Mex 
ico's  national  capital)  the  Maya-Quiches  doubtless 
mingled  with  the  Nahuas,  and  after  appropriating 
certain  elements  of  their  language,  worship,  and 
other  customs,  migrated  southward  again  and  estab 
lished  the  Quiche-Cakchiquel  monarchy  in  Guate 
mala  about  the  eleventh  century.  Colonies  spread 
further  south  into  various  parts  of  Central  America, 
where  remnants  of  their  people  and  evidences  of 
their  former  glory  are  found  to  this  day. 

The  purely  Maya  branch  of  the  family  are  found 
in  considerable  numbers  in  the  State  of  Yucatan, 
and  are  the  admiration  of  all  travelers,  their  cleanli 
ness,  their  intelligence  and  quiet  habits  being 
marked  characteristics  of  the  race.  Yet  in  time  of 
war  they  are  remarkably  brave  and  heroic.  This 
last  characteristic  certainly  gives  color  to  the  claim 
made  by  some  writers  concerning  what  they  are 
pleased  to  call  an  heroic  period  in  the  history  of  the 
Mayas,  a  period  which  occupies  the  same  place 
in  their  history  as  the  Trojan  war  does  in  the  history 
of  Greece.  "  The  tradition  of  the  fall  of  Xibalba, 
the  terror  of  its  neighbors,  the  power  which  by  its 


io6  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

enemies  was  called  infernal,  is  an  heroic  composi 
tion  founded  on  a  combination  of  events  as  mysteri 
ous  and  wonderful  as  those  contained  in  the  '  Iliad  ' 
itself.  To  locate  the  events  in  their  proper  place, 
to  assign  them  their  true  period,  is  attended  with 
as  many  difficulties  as  attend  the  Homeric  history." 

We  have  given  more  space  to  this  Maya  race 
than  we  intend  to  give  to  any  other,  and  for  various 
reasons.  First,  it  is  the  earliest  race  with  anything 
like  a  record  on  the  continent,  and  we  believe  that 
all  Americanists  will  give  more  attention  to  this 
cradle  of  American  civilization  in  the  future  than 
they  have  in  the  past. 

Max  Mu'ller  well  says,  "  The  Usumacintas  seem  a 
kind  of  central  point  for  the  high  culture  of  Central 
America  ;  "*  and  the  famous  explorer  Charnay  adds, 
"  Palenque  will  probably  some  day  decide  the  ques 
tion  of  American  civilization.  It  only  awaits  a 
Champollion." 

We,  the  possessors  of  a  higher  and  purer  civiliza 
tion — of  a  Christian  civilization — cannot  afford  to 
be  entirely  indifferent  to  their  past,  especially  since 
we  are  trying  to  lead  the  descendants  of  this  noble 
though  oppressed  race  "  from  darkness  to  light." 
For  all  the  promising  work  now  carried  on  by  the 
evangelical  Churches  south  of  the  Rio  Grande 

*  Amerikanische  Urreligionen,  p.  456. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  107 

none  is  so  full  of  hope  as  work  among  these  and 
other  indigenous  races. 

We  now  come  to  another  chapter  of  legendary 
history  which  is  difficult  to  treat,  difficult  because 
so  misty.  We  refer  to  the  races  occupying  the  cen 
tral  and  northern  part  of  the  country  in  pre-Toltec 
times.  These  are  generally  known  as  the  Nahua 
nations,  and  divided  into  at  least  eight  families. 
Bancroft  arranges  them  as  follows :  Quinames,  Ol- 
mecs,  Xicalancas,  Totonacs,  Huastecs,  Miztecs, 
Zapotecs,  and  Otomies.  Seftor  Orozco  y  Barra  says 
that  the  Cuicatecs,  Triquis,  Chiniantecs,  Mazatecs, 
Chatinos,  Papabucos,  Soltecos,  Chontales,  and 
Cohuicas  belong  to  the  same  times.  Prichard,  in  his 
Natural  History  of  Man  (vol.  ii,  p.  512),  adds  the 
Coras,  Tepanecs,  and  Tarascos.  The  Codices  Vati- 
canus  and  Tellerianus  give  the  names  as  follows: 
Olmecs,  Xicalancas,  Chichimecs,  Nonohualcas,  Mi- 
chinacas,  Conixcas,  Totonacs,  and  Cuextecas. 

In  the  light  of  the  most  recent  investigation  none 
of  these  lists  is  entirely  satisfactory.  Doubtless 
different  names  have  been  given  to  the  same  tribe, 
and  in  some  cases  the  names  simply  refer  to  fami 
lies  of  one  and  the  same  nation.  We  cannot  pre 
tend  to  "  be  wise  above  another  "  in  the  matter,  and 
can  only  follow  our  humble  judgment  in  a  case 
which  seems  to  us  to  require  more  light  from  honest 


io8  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

and  learned  investigators  before  one  can  speak  with 
any  degree  of  certainty. 

The  chief  authority  for  this  uncertain  history  is 
the  Codex  Chimalpopoca.  It  is  an  anonymous  rec 
ord  written  in  Aztec,  but  with  Spanish  letters, 
copied  by  Ixtlilxochitl,  and  belonged  to  the  famous 
Boturini  collection.  Even  this  has  never  been  pub 
lished,  and  is  only  known  by  occasional  references 
to  it  contained  in  the  works  of  Brasseur  de  Bour- 
bourg.  From  the  abbe  we  quote  the  following : 

"  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  history  of  things 
which  came  to  pass  long  ago,  of  the  division  of 
the  earth,  the  property  of  all,  the  origin  and  its 
foundation,  as  well  as  the  manner  in  which  the  sun 
divided  it  six  times  four  hundred  plus  one  hundred 
plus  thirteen  years  ago  to-day,  the  twenty-second  of 
May,  1558 ;  "  *  that  is,  955  B.C.,  a  date  accepted  by 
most  Spanish  and  Mexican  authors,  and,  strangely 
enough,  it  corresponds  exactly  with  the  date  ad 
mitted  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Foster  in  his  Prehistoric  Races.  \ 

In  the  list  of  pre-Toltec  nations  above  mentioned 
the  Quinames  come  first,  and  are  generally  called 
giants,  the  name  signifying  men  of  great  stature. 
They  are  traditionally  assigned  as  the  first  inhabit 
ants  of  nearly  every  part  of  the  country.  Torque- 
mada  and  Veytia  reject  the  idea  that  a  race  of  giants 

*  Bancroft's  Native  Races^  vol.  v,  p.  193.  f  P.  342. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  109 

actually  existed,  but  Duran  gives  it  as  a  fact.  Clavi- 
gero  says :  "  Nor  can  we  be  persuaded  that  there 
has  ever  been,  as  those  writers  imagined,  a  whole 
nation  of  giants,  but  only  single  individuals."*  In 
the  National  Museum  of  Mexico  may  be  seen  a 
skeleton  found  on  the  gulf  coast,  and  said  to  be  that 
of  Negro  Quiname,  which  stands  over  seven  feet 
high.  Several  other  facts  are  quoted  as  evidence 
that  these  giants  were  probably  Negroes.  Among 
the  great  variety  of  idols  frequently  discovered  in 
excavations  now  going  on  at  Teotihuacan  many 
are  found  representing  African  features,  the  large 
nose  and  thick  lips  being  especially  noticeable.  In 
1860,  in  the  Hacienda  de  Hueyapan,  State  of  Vera 
Cruz,  workmen  accidentally  unearthed  a  gigantic 
head  of  granite  nearly  five  feet  high  and  of  corre 
sponding  proportions.  The  features  are  clearly 
Ethiopian.  Later  a  great  stone  hatchet  was  found 
with  a  face  carved  on  the  handle  also  containing 
Ethiopian  features.  It  is  easy  to  believe  that  both 
of  these  may  have  been  buried  three  thousand 
years.  The  Negroes  may  have  been  one  or  sepa 
rate  races,  or  perhaps,  as  Chavero  says,  the  former 
were  like  "  a  passing  bird  "  pushed  on  to  the  coast 
by  the  superior  numbers  of  the  latter  or,  possibly, 
in  quest  of  a  warmer  climate. 

*Vol.  i,  p.  in. 


i  io  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Oviedo  and  Mendoza  say  that  the  giants  came 
from  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and  Boturini  could  give 
no  reason  for  doubting  their  existence.  *  "  Being 
large  in  stature,  they  could  out-travel  the  rest  of 
mankind,  and  thus  became  naturally  the  first  set 
tlers  of  distant  parts  of  the  world."  They  were  de 
stroyed  in  the  first  or  second  century  of  our  era. 
Whether  giants  or  not,  they  were  a  barbarous  race, 
living  like  brutes  of  the  field,  "  addicted  to  the  most 
disgusting  vices,"  especially  drunkenness  to  excess. 
Ixtlilxochitl  says  that  they  were  exterminated  by  a 
great  convulsion  of  nature  ;  but  Father  Duran  says 
that  all  the  males  were  destroyed  by  the  Tlascalte- 
cas  during  a  great  banquet  prepared  for  the  purpose 
in  107  A.  D.  As  some  regard  the  Olmecs  an  off 
shoot  of  the  Mayas  it  may  be  that  "  we  have  here 
a  figurative  allusion,  from  a  Nahua  standpoint,  to 
the  fall  of  the  Xibalban  power  itself — the  New 
World  Babylon,  which,  like  the  old,  may  have  met 
its  fate  during  a  drunken  revel." 

About  the  time  that  the  Quinames  were  destroyed 
the  Pyramid  of  Cholula  was  built,  under  the  direction 
of  a  chief  called  Xelhua.  Its  origin  is  said  to  have 
been  connected  in  some  way  with  a  flood,  but 
authorities  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  it  was 
built  as  a  memorial  in  honor  of  the  builders'  salva- 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  199. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  m 

tion  from  a  former  flood,  or  as  a  place  of  refuge 
from  another  that  might  come.  Boturini  and  most 
Spanish  writers  connect  it  with  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
claiming  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Olmecs  were 
present  on  the  occasion,  and  they  also  say  that 
work  on  the  Cholula  tower  was  stopped  by  fire  sent 
from  heaven.  It  is  true  that  the  Toltecs  had  a  del 
uge  tradition  of  a  general  and  devastating  flood, 
possibly  the  scriptural  one. 

Lord  Kingsborough  seems  to  imply  that  Xelhua 
was  one  of  those  who  escaped  with  Noah  in  the 
ark,  and  from  the  plain  of  Shinar  led  a  colony  to 
the  New  World.  This  would  certainly  put  the 
building  of  Cholula  much  earlier  than  is  generally 
claimed, or  make  Xelhuaabout  one  thousand  yearsold 
when  he  began  theconstruction  of  the  Mexican  tower. 

Father  Duran,  however,  gives  a  different  and  to 
us  more  reasonable  cause  for  the  building  of  the 
Cholula  pyramid,  for  we  have  never  been  able  to 
see  why  the  natives  would  build  a  tower  to  escape 
a  possible  flood  on  the  very  foothills  of  "  snow 
capped  mountains  which  kiss  the  firmament." 
Father  Duran,  who  wrote  soon  after  the  Spanish 
Conquest,  says  that  he  found  at  Cholula  a  native 
one  hundred  years  old,  "  bent  with  age,"  but  well 
informed  as  to  its  history.  From  him  Duran  took 
down  the  following  story : 


ii2  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

"  In  the  beginning,  before  the  light  of  the  sun 
had  been  created,  this  land  was  in  obscurity  and 
darkness  and  void  of  any  created  thing ;  all  was  a 
plain  without  hill  or  elevation,  encircled  in  every 
part  by  water,  without  tree  or  created  thing  ;  and 
immediately  after  the  light  and  the  sun  arose  in  the 
east  there  appeared  gigantic  men  of  deformed 
stature  and  possessed  the  land,  who,  desiring  to  see 
the  nativity  of  the  sun  as  well  as  his  Occident,  pro 
posed  to  go  and  seek  them.  Dividing  themselves 
into  two  parties,  some  journeyed  toward  the  west  and 
others  toward  the  east ;  these  traveled  until  the  sea 
cut  off  their  road,  whereupon  they  determined  to 
return  to  the  place  from  which  they  started,  and 
arriving  at  this  place,  which  was  called  Iztacculin, 
ineminian  (Cholula),  not  finding  the  means  of  reach 
ing  the  sun,  enamored  of  his  light  and  beauty,  they 
determined  to  build  a  tower  so  high  that  its  sum 
mit  should  reach  the  sky.  Having  collected  mate 
rial  for  the  purpose,  they  found  a  very  adhesive  clay 
and  bitumen,  with  which  they  speedily  commenced 
to  build  the  tower,  and  having  reared  it  to  the 
greatest  possible  altitude,  so  that  they  say  it 
reached  to  the  sky,  the  Lord  of  the  heavens,  en 
raged,  said  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  sky,  '  Have 
you  observed  how  they  of  the  earth  have  built  a 
high  and  haughty  tower  to  mount  hither,  being 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  113 

enamored  of  the  light  of  the  sun  and  his  beauty  ? 
Come  and  confound  them  ;  because  it  is  not  right 
that  they  of  the  earth,  living  in  the  flesh,  should 
mingle  with  us.'  Immediately,  at  that  very  instant, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  sky  sallied  forth  like  flashes 
of  lightning  ;  they  destroyed  the  edifice  and  di 
vided  and  scattered  its  builders  to  all  parts  of  the 
earth."  * 

Here,  then,  in  this  most  ancient  of  records  we 
find  no  reference  whatever  to  a  flood,  but  rather  a 
confirmation  of  the  supposed  tendency  of  Ameri 
cans  all  over  the  continent,  including  those  of  the 
Mississippi  valley,  perhaps,  to  erect  mounds  and 
truncated  pyramids  for  the  purpose  of  worshiping 
the  sun.  That  these  mounds  were  regarded  as 
sacred  is  further  proven  by  the  fact  that  recently  in 
the  construction  of  a  railway  across  the  corner  of 
the  pyramid  under  consideration  the  workmen 
found  an  ancient  sepulcher,  and  took  out  two  petri 
fied  human  skeletons.  Similar  proofs  have  been 
discovered  at  Teotihuacan. 

After  the  Quinames  came  the  Olmecs  and  the 
Xicalancas,  named  after  their  first  rulers,  Olmecatl 
and  Xicalancatl.  These  are  sometimes  represented 
as  two  nations,  but  both  using  the  Toltec  language, 
though  settled  in  Anahuac  long  before  the  estab- 

*  Duran,  vol.  i,  p.  6. 
9 


ii4  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

lishment  of  the  Toltec  empire  in  Tula.  While  as 
nations  they  lost  their  identity  before  the  coming 
of  Cortez,  yet  under  new  names  and  other  family 
combinations  they  were  still  living  in  Puebla, 
southern  Vera  Cruz,  Chiapas,  and  Tabasco  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest.  They  are  generally  con 
sidered  as  the  first  of  the  Nahua  nations  in  central 
Mexico,  and  tradition  on  the  Campeche  coast  says 
that  they  came  there  in  ships  from  the  east,  and 
afterward  migrated  both  north  and  south.  A  cape 
in  the  State  of  Campeche  still  bears  the  name  of 
Xicolanco.  They  were  an  industrious  and  quiet 
people,  being  especially  devoted  to  agriculture. 

It  is  also  claimed  that  the  Olmecs  built  the  fa 
mous  Palenque,  the  oldest  city  on  the  American 
continent,*  but  now  one  of  the  grandest  of  Mexican 
ruins.  Of  it  the  modern  poet  has  written  : 

"  Unlike  Copan,  yet  buried,  too,  'mid  trees 

Upspringing  there  for  sumless  centuries, 

Behold  a  royal  city,  vast  and  lone, 

Lost  to  each  race,  to  all  the  world  unknown, 

Like  famed  Pompeii,  'neath  her  lava  bed, 

Till  chance  unveiled  the  City  of  the  Dead. 

Palenque  !  seat  of  kings  !  as  o'er  the  plain, 

Clothed  with  thick  copse,  the  traveler  toils  with  pain, 

Climbs  the  rude  mound  the  shadowy  scene  to  trace, 

He  views  in  mute  surprise  thy  desert  grace. 

At  every  step  some  palace  meets  his  eye, 

Some  figure  frowns,  some  temple  courts  the  sky. 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  202. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  115 

It  seems  as  if  that  hour  the  verdurous  earth, 
By  genii  struck,  had  given  their  fabrics  birth, 
Save  that  old  Time  hath  flung  his  darkening  pall 
On  each  tree-shaded  tower  and  pictured  wall." 

This  ruined  city,  with  all  its  beautiful  and  mys 
terious  surroundings,  was  unknown  to  the  outside 
world  till  1750.  In  1787  the  ancient  ruins  were  ex 
plored  by  order  of  the  King  of  Spain,  and  again  in 
1807  by  a  like  order.  Since  then  several  other 
European  and  a  few  American  travelers  have  visited 
and  described  this  enchanting  spot ;  and  the  valu 
able  works  of  Galindo,  Dupaix,  Waldeck,  Stephens, 
Charnay,  Squire,  and  Ober  furnish  as  interesting 
reading  as  the  student  of  history  could  desire. 

From  all  these  we  learn  that  where  once  existed 
the  metropolis  of  a  mighty  empire  in  the  beauti 
ful  valley  of  Usumacinta,  only  ruins  now  exist, 
ruins  which  have  given  rise  to  almost  as  many 
theories  as  there  have  been  investigators.  All, 
however,  seem  to  unite  in  this  conviction,  that  this 
region  was  the  capital  of  an  ancient  theocratic  em 
pire  of  vast  influence. 

On  the  moss-covered  walls  of  the  ruins  are  sculp 
tures  which  fain  would  "  speak  to  us  in  an  unknown 
language,  hieroglyphics,  and  the  chiseled  types  of  a 
people  long  since  departed."  In  what  is  known  in 
modern  times  as  "  Casa  Number  Two  "  is  a  portion 
of  a  famous  sculpture  known  as  the  "  Palenque  Tab- 


ii6  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

let,"  containing  the  figure  of  a  cross  about  which 
archaeolgists  have  wrangled,  and  bitterly.  In  1842 
a  portion  of  it  was  sent  to  the  National  Museum  at 
Washington.  A  third  part  is  supposed  to  be  buried 
somewhere  about  the  ruins.  Notwithstanding  these 
unfavorable  circumstances  Professor  Churles  Rau, 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  through  most  diligent 
labor,  has  produced  a  restoration  of  the  sculpture 
as  it  probably  appeared  in  the  "  Sanctuary  of  the 
Cross"  in  Palenque.  Mr.  Stephens  has  thus  de 
scribed  it: 

"  The  principal  subject  of  this  tablet  is  the  cross. 
It  is  surmounted  by  a  strange  bird  and  loaded  with 
indescribable  ornaments.  The  two  figures  are  evi 
dently  those  of  important  personages.  They  are 
well  drawn,  and  in  symmetry  of  proportion  are  per 
haps  equal  to  many  that  are  carved  on  the  walls  of 
the  temples  of  Egypt.  .  .  .  Both  are  looking  toward 
the  cross,  and  one  seems  in  the  act  of  making  an  of 
fering,  perhaps  of  a  child.  All  speculations  on  the 
subject  are,  of  course,  entitled  to  a  little  regard  ;  but 
perhaps  it  would  not  be  wrong  to  ascribe  to  these 
personages  a  sacerdotal  character.  The  hieroglyph 
ics,  doubtless,  explain  all.  Near  them  are  other  hier 
oglyphics,  which  remind  us  of  the  Egyptian  mode 
for  recording  the  name,  history,  office,  or  character 
of  the  persons  represented.  This  tablet  of  the  cross 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  117 

has  given  rise  to  more  learned  speculation  than 
perhaps  any  others  found  at  Palenque." 

How  or  when  the  first  symbol  of  the  cross  was  in 
troduced  into  America  is  an  interesting  though  per 
haps  unsatisfactory  study.  That  part,  at  least,  is 
interesting  which  claims  that  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles  brought  it  here,  and  fourteen  or  fifteen 
centuries  before  Cortez  built  his  first  Christian 
church  in  Tlaxcala  this  same  apostle  preached  the 
Gospel  to  the  descendants  of  the  Olmecs  on  the 
very  ground  where  these  ruins  are  now  found. 

The  hero  of  General  Lew  Wallace's  Fair  God  in 
Nahua  history  goes  by  the  name  of  Quetzalcoatl. 
Among  the  Quiches  his  name  was  Gucumatz,  and 
among  the  Mayas,  Cukulcan,  which,  singularly 
enough,  means  the  same  in  each  language,  namely, 
"  plumed  serpent."  The  first  named  was  no  tribal 
hero,  but  belonged  to  the  entire  Nahua  race,  and 
some  believe  that  he  was  called  "  feathered  or 
plumed  serpent,"  after  the  brazen  serpent  which 
Moses  lifted  up  in  the  wilderness.  "  Representa 
tions  of  the  lifting  up  of  serpents  frequently  occur  in 
Mexican  paintings."4'  Not  only  so,  but  the  plagues 
which  Moses  called  down  upon  the  Egyptians  by 
lifting  up  his  rod,  which  became  a  serpent,  are  re 
ferred  to  in  some  of  the  pictures  found  in  the  Bor- 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  87. 


n8  SKETCHES  or  MEXICO. 

gian  manuscripts.  The  name  Quetzalcoatl  seems 
to  have  been  applied  to  the  leader  or  culture  hero 
of  the  people  during  hundreds  of  years  of  Nahua. 
At  least  two  different  personages  bore  that  name. 

About  the  time  that  the  Olmecs  were  in  the 
height  of  their  power  a  man  named  Quetzalcoatl 
appeared  in  the  country,  "  a  venerable,  just,  and 
holy  man,  who  taught  by  precept  and  example  the 
paths  of  virtue  in  all  the  Nahua  cities." 

Garcia,  Torquemada,  Sahagun,  and  other  Spanish 
writers  firmly  believed  him  to  be  identical  with 
St.  Thomas,  one  of  the  apostles,  and  repeatedly 
mentioned  him  as  the  first  man  to  preach  the  Gos 
pel  in  all  America.  We  cannot  see  why  this  tradi 
tion  is  any  less  groundless  than  the  one  which  takes 
St.  Thomas  to  East  India,  as  published  in  our 
own  cyclopedias.*  Of  this  Carlos  de  Siguenza  and 
Luis  Becerra  Tanco,  in  Felicidad  de  Mexico  (p.  55), 
say  that  the  hero's  proper  name,  Topiltzni  Quetzal 
coatl,  "  closely  resembles  in  sound  and  signification 
that  of  Thomas,  surnamed  Didymus;  for  To,  in  the 
Mexican  name,  is  an  abbreviation  of  Tomas,  to 
which  Pilcin,  meaning  son  or  disciple,  is  added  ; 
while  the  meaning  of  Quetzalcoatl  is  exactly  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Greek  name  Didymus,  a 
twin,  being  compounded  of  Quetzalli,  a  plume  of 

*  See  McClintock  &  Strong,  vol.  x,  p.  368. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICANS.  119 

green  feathers,  metaphorically  signifying  anything 
precious,  and  coatl,  a  serpent,  metaphorically  mean 
ing  one  of  two  twins." 

Boturini  says  that  he  had  "  certain  historical 
memoranda  by  the  glorious  apostle  St.  Thomas." 
He  also  cites  paintings  of  crosses  found  by  him  in 
southern  Mexico  and  other  evidences  of  the  "  tracks 
of  his  holy  feet  in  many  parts  of  New  Spain."  Of 
this  man  or  another  bearing  the  same  name  we 
shall  have  more  to  say  in  our  next  lecture.  After 
Quetzalcoatl's  mysterious  disappearance  nothing 
more  is  known  of  Olmec  and  Xicalanca  history  till 
the  establishment  of  the  Toltec  empire,  when  they 
are  still  in  possession  of  Puebla  and  Tlaxcala. 

The  Totonacs  were  also  pre-Toltec  in  history. 
They  migrated  from  the  valley  of  Mexico  and  claim 
to  have  built  the  pyramids  of  Teotihuacan,  a  great 
religious  center  in  primitive  times,  of  which  we  will 
speak  later. 

The  Otomis,  another  primitive  race,  differ  in  lan 
guage  from  all  Nahua  nations,  though  with  a  slight 
affinity  with  the  Totonacs,  "  and  have  always  been 
to  a  certain  extent  an  outcast  and  oppressed  race, 
'  the  Jews  of  Anahuac,'  trodden  down  in  succession 
by  Toltec,  Chichimec,  and  Aztec."  When  the  Tol 
tec  empire  was  established  they  possessed  much 
territory  of  Anahuac. 


i2o  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Of  the  early  history  of  the  Miztecs,  Zapotecs, 
Huastecs,  and  other  pre-Toltec  nations  but  little  is 
known  which  would  be  of  interest  here.  This 
brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  more  regular 
and  less  mythical  annals  of  one  of  the  most  enchant 
ing  histories  in  the  whole  world,  and  all  upon  our 
own  continent. 


LECTURE  IV. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY. 


LECTURE  IV. 
THE   EARLY   MEXICANS   AND   THEIR   HISTORY. 


hundred  and  sixteen  years  after  wise 
Toltecs,  astrologers,  and  those  of  other  arts 
had  assembled  in  Huehue  Tlapallan  for  the  purpose 
of  regulating  their  calendar,  the  sun  and  moon 
were  eclipsed,  the  earth  shook  and  the  rocks  were 
rent  asunder,  and  many  other  things  and  signs  hap 
pened,  though  there  was  no  loss  of  life.  This  was 
the  year  Ce  Calli,  which,  the  chronology  being  re 
duced  to  our  systems,  proves  to  be  the  same  date 
when  Christ  our  Lord  suffered."  Thus  does  Ixtlil- 
xochitl,  Mexico's  best  primitive  historian,  intro 
duce  us  to  the  Toltecs. 

It  will  be  of  interest  first  to  locate  the  meeting 
place  of  this  famous  convocation,  which  occurred 
about  2000  B.  C.,  after  one  hundred  and  four  years  of 
wandering  over  land  and  sea,  during  which  time 
the  ancient  Mexicans  suffered  great  hardships. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  Huehue  Tlapallan  is 
"ancient  red  land  or  land  of  color."  "Astrology, 
soothsaying,  the  interpretation  of  dreams  and  of 
auguries,  such  as  the  flight  or  song  of  birds,  the 


124  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

sudden  meeting  of  wild  animals,  or  the  occurrence 
of  other  unlooked-for  events,  were  regarded  by  the 
Nahuas  as  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  the 
practice  of  such  arts  was  intrusted  to  the  tonal- 
ponhqui,  '  those  who  count  by  the  sun,'  a  class  of 
men  held  in  high  esteem,  to  whom  was  attributed  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  future  events.  We  have  seen 
that  no  undertaking,  public  or  private,  of  any  im 
portance  could  be  engaged  in  except  under  a  suit 
able  and  propitious  sign,  and  to  determine  this 
sign  the  tonalpouJiqui  was  appealed  to.  The  science 
of  astrology  was  written  down  in  books  kept  with 
great  secrecy  and  mystery,  altogether  unintelligible 
to  the  common  crowd,  whose  good  or  bad  fortune 
was  therein  supposed  to  be  painted.  The  details 
of  the  methods  employed  in  the  mysterious  rites  of 
divination  are  nowhere  recorded.""3 

Most  historians  agree  that  these  ancestors  of  the 
Toltecs  came  from  the  distant  East  in  seven  barks 
or  ships,  which  Sahagun  calls  Chicomoztoc,  or  the 
seven  grottoes.  In  all  ages  the  number  seven  has 
been  a  sacred  number  among  American  peoples.  It 
may  be  well,  before  passing,  to  remark  that  per 
chance  these  seven  ships,  or  grottoes,  are  "  the 
seven  caves"  so  often  referred  to  in  primitive  Mex 
ican  history.  The  starting  point  was  doubtless 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  ii,  p.  500. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     125 

some  part  of  Asia  and,  perhaps,  "  a  plain  in  the 
land  of  Shinar  "  (Gen.  xi,  2).  The  resting  place, 
which  they  called  Huehue  Tlapallan,  and  which 
they  "  found  fertile  and  desirable  to  dwell  in,"  ac 
cording  to  Professor  Short,  was  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi.  Mr.  Bancroft  advocates  a  southern 
locality,  possibly  Honduras.  Sahagun  thinks  it 
was  Florida.  Humboldt  cites  the  River  Gila  in 
New  Mexico,  while  others  place  it  somewhere  on 
the  coast  of  the  Californian  Gulf,  but,  with  very 
few  exceptions,  Spanish  and  Mexican  historians,  in 
cluding  Clavigero  and  Veytia,  unite  in  locating  it 
north  of  Anahuac. 

On  coming  from  the  land  where  the  sun  rises  to 
their  new  home,  "  which  they  found  to  be  fertile 
and  desirable  to  dwell  in,  ...  the  supreme  com 
mand  was  in  the  hand  of  a  chieftain  whom  his 
tory  calls  Quetzalcohuatli,  that  is  to  say,  lord  par 
excellence.  To  his  care  was  confided  the  holy  en 
velope  which  concealed  the  divinity  from  the 
human  gaze,  and  he  alone  received  from  it  the 
necessary  instructions  to  guide  his  people's  march. 
These  kinds  of  divinities,  thus  enveloped,  passed 
for  being  sure  talismans,  and  were  looked  upon 
with  the  greatest  respect  and  veneration.  They 
consisted  generally  of  a  bit  of  wood,  in  which  was 
inserted  a  little  idol  of  green  stone ;  this  was 


126  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

covered  with  the  skin  of  a  serpent  or  of  a  tiger, 
after  which  it  was  rolled  in  numerous  little  bands 
of  stuff,  wherein  it  would  remain  wrapped  for 
centuries  together.  Such  is,  perhaps,  the  origin  of 
the  medicine  bags  made  use  of  even  in  the  present 
day  by  the  Indians  of  the  Great  Desert."  * 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Nahuas,  on  first  reaching 
our  northwest  coast,  were  few  in  number,  and  that 
they  remained  there  for  generations  till  they  became 
a  nation  of  no  mean  proportions.  After  crossing 
the  watershed  between  the  sources  of  the  Columbia 
and  Missouri  rivers  part  wended  their  way  to  the 
Mississippi  valley,  where  their  empire  continued  to 
spread  with  the  passing  ages  ;  while  another  part 
made  their  way  into  Utah,  where  we  may  to-day 
see  their  remains  in  the  cliff  dwellings  of  the  San 
Juan  valley  and  the  many  ruins  of  Aztec  springs.f 

The  first  Nahuas  to  reach  Mexico  probably  came 
by  ships  from  the  direction  of  Florida,  landed  at 
the  mouth  of  the  beautiful  broad  Panuco  (Mexico's 
Mississippi),  and  migrated  southward  till  they  came 
into  touch  with  the  older  and  riper  civilization  of 
the  Mayas.  The  Toltecs  probably  came  by  land, 
and  from  the  distant  north.  The  Chichimecs,  their 
old  neighbors  in  Huehue  Tlapallan,  followed  them 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  iii,  p.  270. 

\  North  Americans  of  Antiquity,  p.  517. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     127 

and  adopted  their  language.  The  Nahuatlacas  ar 
rived  centuries  later,  and  finally  the  Aztecs  reached 
Anahuac  some  four  hundred  years  before  the  Span 
ish  conquest. 

Having  treated  the  Maya  question  in  our  former 
lecture,  we  will  take  up  the  others  in  chronological 
order. 

This  leads  us  first  to  mention  the  Toltecs.  After 
long  centuries  of  peace  and  prosperity  in  "  the  red 
land,"  Chalcatzin  and  Tlacamilitzin,  chiefs  in  the 
royal  line,  rebelled  against  the  legitimate  successor 
to  the  throne.  After  a  war  of  eight  years,  with  their 
numerous  families  and  allies  they  were  driven  out 
of  the  country.  They  settled  in  Tlapallancoco,  the 
little,  or  New  Tlapallan.  Among  those  who  joined 
the  fortunes  of  the  insurgents  were  five  other  chiefs, 
with  their  respective  tribes.  Their  departure,  ac 
cording  to  Chavero,  took  place  in  the  year  583 
A.  D.,  though  Clavigero  claims  it  was  in  544.  After 
remaining  three  years  in  Tlapallancoco  the  seven 
chiefs  held  a  council  to  determine  whether  they 
should  make  that  their  permanent  capital  or  should 
move  further  on.*  "  Then  arose  a  great  astrologer 
named  Hueman,  or  Huematzin,  saying  that  accord 
ing  to  their  histories  they  had  suffered  great  perse 
cutions  from  heaven,  but  that  these  had  always  been 

*  Native  Races  >  vol.  v,  p.  211. 


128  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

followed  by  great  prosperity ;  that  their  persecu 
tions  had  always  occurred  in  the  year  Ce  Tecpatl ; 
but  that  year  once  passed  great  blessings  ensued ; 
that  their  trouble  was  a  great  evil  immediately  pre 
ceding  the  dawn  of  a  greater  good,  and  conse 
quently  it  did  not  behoove  them  to  remain  so  near 
their  enemies.  Moreover,  his  astrology  had  taught 
him  that  toward  the  rising  sun  there  was  a  broad 
and  happy  land,  where  the  Quinames  had  lived  for 
many  years ;  but  so  long  a  time  had  now  passed 
since  their  destruction  that  the  country  was  depop 
ulated  ;  besides,  the  fierce  Chichimecs,  their  neigh 
bors,  rarely  penetrated  those  regions.  .  .  .  These 
and  other  things  did  Hueman  counsel,  and  they 
seemed  good  to  the  seven  chiefs  ;  so  that  after  three 
years  were  passed,  or  eleven  years  from  the  time 
when  they  left  Huehue  Tlapallan,  they  started  on 
their  migration." 

After  twelve  days  they  reached  Hueyxalan, 
seventy  leagues,  and  remained  there  for  four  years. 
Pushing  on  they  traveled  one  hundred  leagues  more 
and  came  to  Jalisco,  the  heart  of  the  country.  In 
this  place  they  remained  eight  years.  Subsequently 
they  made  eleven  other  marches,  covering,  in  all, 
one  thousand  two  hundred  and  twenty-four  leagues, 
made  in  one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  days.  But 
as  they  tarried  from  five  to  twenty-six  years  in 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     129 

each  place  they  finally  reached  Tollan,  or  Tula,  one 
hundred  and  nineteen  years  after  leaving  their  orig 
inal  habitat.  This  last-named  place,  about  thirty 
miles  to  the  north  of  the  modern  capital  of  the 
country,  became  the  center  of  the  wonderful  Toltec 
empire,  an  empire  which  had  great  influence  on 
subsequent  Mexican  history. 

Their  government  during  the  journey  was  theo 
cratic  and  their  religion  theistic.  They  had  mili 
tary  chiefs,  but  God  was  their  great  commander, 
and  they  relied  on  Hueman,  their  chief  priest,  to 
know  God's  will. 

Mexican  historians  find  here  an  interesting  paral 
lel  with  the  experiences  of  the  Hebrews,  who  also 
made  comparatively  short  marches,  were  always  in 
fluenced  by  religious  considerations,  and  were  ever 
subject  to  sacerdotal  command.  One  of  their  most 
noted  living  writers  says  that  "  the  Israelites  would 
never  have  reached  the  land  of  promise  if  Moses 
had  been  a  warrior  and  not  a  hierarch."  The  un 
written  history  of  Toltec  migrations  would  doubt 
less  disclose  many  a  triumph  of  diplomacy  as  well 
as  of  armed  aggression. 

The  exact  date  of  the  founding  of  the  Toltec 
empire  in  Tollan  (Tula),  as  well  as  the  names  of  its 
first  kings,  have  been  matters  of  lively  discussion 

among  European  and  American  authors.     Most  of 
10 


130  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

these,  so  frequently  quoted  during  these  lectures,  have 
imitated  the  ancient  Mexican  historian  Ixtlilxochitl. 
Late  research,  no  doubt,  gives  more  accurate  infor 
mation.  The  Anales  de  Cuauhtitlan,  though  origi 
nally  published  in  the  Mexican  language  between 
the  years  of  1563  and  1570,  and  preserved  for  long 
years  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  San  Gregorio,  were 
recently  translated  by  Faustino  Galicia  Chimalpo- 
poca  and  corrected  by  Messrs.  Ramirez,  Mendoza* 
and  Sanchez  Solis,  all  eminent  Indian  scholars  who 
were  within  late  years  connected  with  the  National 
Museum  of  Mexico.  The  result  of  the  united  study 
of  these  most  distinguished  archaeologists  is  that 
Tula  was  first  occupied  by  the  Toltecs  in  the  year 
Ce  Tochtli,  that  is,  the  year  674  of  the  Christian  era. 
For  twenty-six  years  they  were  under  the  command 
of  their  rebel  princes  Chalcaltzin  and  Tlacamihtzin. 
Then  their  first  king,  Mixcoamazatzin,  was  chosen. 
He  reigned  from  700  to  765,  and,  after  him,  ten 
other  monarchs,  down  to  the  second  Quetzalcoatl, 
who  reigned  from  1048  to  1116,  when  the  empire 
was  overthrown  and  Tula  destroyed.  This  covers  a 
period  of  four  hundred  and  forty-two  years. 

It  seems  that  the  great  high  priest  or  astrologer, 
Hueman,  either  lived  about  three  hundred  years  or 
had  successors  who  carried  his  name  and  profession 
through  three  centuries,  for  we  find  that  during  the 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     131 

reign  of  Ixtlilcuechahuac,  second  king  of  the  empire, 
"  the  aged  Hueman  assembled"  all  the  wise  men 
to  join  him  in  his  final  work  on  earth.*  "  At  this 
assembly  there  were  brought  forward  all  the  Toltec 
records,  reaching  back  to  the  earliest  period  of  their 
existence,  and  from  these  documents,  after  a  long  con 
ference  and  the  most  careful  study,  the  Teoamoxtli, 
or  '  book  of  God,'  was  prepared,  that  is,  painted. 
In  its  pages  were  inscribed  the  Nahua  annals  from 
the  time  of  the  deluge,  or  even  from  the  creation, 
together  with  all  their  religious  rites,  governmental 
system,  laws,  and  social  customs  ;  their  knowledge 
respecting  agriculture  and  all  the  arts  and  sciences, 
particular  attention  being  given  to  astrology,  and 
a  complete  explanation  of  their  modes  of  reckoning 
time  and  interpreting  the  hieroglyphics.  To  the 
divine  book  was  added  a  chapter  of  prophecies  re 
specting  future  events  and  the  signs  by  which  it 
should  be  known  when  the  time  of  their  fulfillment 
was  drawing  near." 

Let  us  here  quote  the  testimony  of  Clavigero  :  f 

"  The  Toltecs  were  the  most  celebrated  people  of 

Anahuac  for  their  superior  civilization  and  skill  in 

arts,  whence,  in  after  ages,  it  has  been  common  to 

distinguish  the  most  remarkable  artists  in  an  hon- 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  p.  251,  and  Clavigero,  vol.  i,  p.  115. 
f  Clavigero,  vol.  i,  p.  114.     Richmond  edition. 


132  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

orable  manner  by  the  application  of  Toltecas.  They 
always  lived  in  society  collected  into  cities,  under 
the  government  of  kings  and  regular  laws. 

"  They  were  not  very  warlike,  and  less  turned  to 
the  exercise  of  arms  than  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
arts.  The  nations  that  have  succeeded  them  have 
acknowledged  themselves  indebted  to  the  Toltecs 
for  their  knowledge  of  the  culture  of  grain,  cotton, 
pepper,  and  other  most  useful  fruits.  Nor  did  they 
only  practice  those  arts  which  are  dictated  by  ne 
cessity,  but  those  also  which  minister  to  luxury. 
They  had  the  art  of  casting  gold  and  silver  and 
melting  them  in  whatever  forms  they  pleased,  and 
acquired  the  greatest  reputation  from  the  cutting 
of  all  kinds  of  gems  ;  but  nothing  to  us  raises  their 
character  so  high  as  their  having  been  the  inventors, 
or  at  least  the  reformers,  of  that  system  of  the  ar 
rangement  of  time  which  was  adopted  by  all  the 
civilized  nations  of  Anahuac,  and  which,  as  we  shall 
see  afterward,  implies  numerous  observations  and  a 
wonderfully  correct  astronomy." 

This  is  a  matter  that  certainly  deserves  more  than 
passing  mention,  and  which  proves  beyond  a  doubt 
the  high  state  of  civilization  reached  by  these 
people.  In  their  picture  Teoamoxtli,or  divine  book, 
were  described  the  heavens,  the  planets,  the  con 
stellations,  the  Toltecan  calendar,  with  its  cycles, 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     133 

etc.  Clavigero  adds:  "However  incredible  it  may 
appear  to  the  critics  of  Europe,  who  are  accustomed 
to  look  upon  the  Americans  as  all  equally  barbarous, 
they,  Mexicans  and  all  the  other  civilized  nations  of 
Anahuac,  regulated  their  civil  year  according  to  the 
solar."  *  It  "  consisted  of  seventy-three  periods  of 
thirteen  days,  and  the  century  of  seventy-three 
periods  of  thirteen  months,  or  cycles  of  three  hun 
dred  and  sixty  days." 

It  is  certainly  not  to  be  doubted  that  the  Mexi 
can  or  Toltecan  system  of  the  distribution  of  time 
was  extremely  well  digested,  though  at  first  view  it 
appears  rather  intricate  and  perplexed  ;  hence,  we 
may  infer  with  confidence  it  was  not  the  work  of  a 
rude  or  an  unpolished  people.  That,  however, 
which  is  most  surprising  in  their  mode  of  computing 
time,  and  which  will  certainly  appear  improbable  to 
readers  who  are  ill  informed  with  respect  to  Mexi 
can  antiquity,  is  that,  having  discovered  the  excess 
of  a  few  hours  in  the  solar  above  the  civil  year, 
they  made  use  of  intercalary  days  to  bring  them  to 
an  equality,  but  with  the  difference  in  regard  to 
the  method  established  by  Julius  Caesar  in  the 
Roman  calendar,  that  they  did  not  interpose  a  day 
every  four  years,  but  thirteen  days  (making  use 
even  here  of  this  favorite  number)  every  fifty-two 
*  Vol.  i,  pp.  335,  336. 


134  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

years,  which  produces  the  same  regulations  of  time. 
At  the  expiration  of  the  cycle  they  broke,  as  we 
shall  mention  hereafter,  all  the  kitchen  utensils, 
fearing  that  then  also  the  fourth  age,  the  sun  and 
a*ll  the  world  were  to  be  ended,  and  on  the  last 
night  they  performed  the  famous  ceremony  of  the 
new  fire.  As  soon  as  they  were  assured  by  the  new 
fire  that  a  new  cycle,  according  to  their  belief, 
was  granted  to  them  by  the  gods,  they  employed 
the  thirteen  following  days  in  supplying  their 
kitchen  utensils,  in  furnishing  new  garments,  in  re 
pairing  their  temples  and  houses,  and  in  making 
every  preparation  for  the  grand  festivals  of  the  new 
century. 

These  thirteen  days  were  the  intercalary  days 
represented  in  their  paintings  by  blue  points  ;  they 
were  not  included  in  the  cycle  just  expired,  nor 
in  that  which  was  just  commencing,  nor  did  they 
continue  in  them  their  periods  of  days  which  they 
always  reckoned  from  the  first  day  to  the  last  day 
of  the  century. 

When  the  intercalary  days  were  elapsed  they 
began  the  new  cycle  with  the  year  I,  Tochtli,  and 
the  day  I,  Cipactli,  upon  the  twenty-sixth  day  of 
February,  as  they  did  at  the  beginning  of  the  pre 
ceding  cycle. 

We  would  not  venture  to  relate  these  particulars 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.    135 

if  we  were  not  supported  by  the  testimony  of  Dr. 
Siguenza,  who,  "  in  addition  to  his  great  learning, 
his  critical  skill  and  sincerity,  was  the  person  who 
most  diligently  exerted  himself  to  illustrate  these 
points,  and  consulted  with  the  best  instructed  Mex 
icans  and  Tezcocans,  and  studied  their  histories 
and  paintings." 

Some  thirteen  years  since  a  missionary  errand 
took  us  for  the  first  time  to  Tula.  We  found  a 
quiet  little  city,  built  largely  of  basaltic  rock  taken 
from  the  surrounding  mountains  or  possibly  from 
ancient  ruins  mostly  buried  beneath  the  surface. 
There  was  an  attractive  little  plaza,  with  a  bubbling 
fountain  in  the  center.  A  noble  cathedral,  bearing 
the  date  of  1553,  indicates  the  importance  in  which 
the  Spanish  invaders  held  the  town  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years  ago.  "  It  is  a  magnificent  building, 
with  lofty  groined  ceiling,  and  with  a  collection  of 
paintings  that  appear  to  possess  great  merit  as  well 
as  antiquity."  The  ancient  Tula  River  still  encircles 
half  the  town,  and  a  stone  bridge  arched,  and  with  a 
parapet,  carries  the  date  1772. 

But  on  the  right  and  left  are  evidences  of  greater 
antiquity  than  either  bridge  or  cathedral  can  show. 
Some  of  these,  as  stated  in  a  previous  lecture,  are 
in  the  very  plaza,  sacredly  guarded  by  the  govern 
ment,  and  above  the  city,  on  a  hill  overlooking  two 


136  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

valleys  ;  on  a  ridge  about  a  mile  in  length  are  the 
ruins  of  buildings  erected  perhaps  as  far  back  as  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries. 

Prescott  says  of  the  settlement  of  the  Toltecs 
here  in  648,  following  the  date  given  by  Clavigero : 
"  They  fixed  their  capital  at  Tula,  north  of  the 
Mexican  valley,  and  the  remains  of  extensive  build 
ings  were  to  be  discerned  there  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest.  The  noble  ruins  of  religious  and  other 
edifices  are  referred  to  this  people,  whose  name, 
Toltec,  has  passed  into  a  synonym  for  architect. 
Their  shadowy  history  reminds  one  of  those  primi 
tive  races  who  preceded  the  ancient  Egyptians  in 
the  march  of  civilization.  After  four  centuries  the 
Toltecs  disappeared  as  silently  and  mysteriously  as 
they  came."^ 

Whatever  of  mystery  may  have  surrounded  their 
advent,  their  disruption  as  a  nation  is  as  circum 
stantially  told,  and  is  as  authentic,  as  any  history 
or  tradition  of  that  period.  It  is  the  old  story,  and 
the  causes  are  such  as  have  brought  ruin  to  many  a 
family  and  nation  in  the  past.  About  the  begin 
ning  of  the  eleventh  century  the  seeds  of  disturb 
ance  were  sown  in  the  hitherto  peaceful  and  pros 
perous  kingdom  of  Tollan.  Some  Indians  had 
found  the  squirrels  sapping  the  maguey  plant 

*  Prescott,  vol.  i,  p.  8. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     137 

(agave),  which  produces  at  maturity  great  quanti 
ties  of  juice.  From  this  originated  the  idea  of 
scraping  the  heart  of  the  ripe  plant,  allowing  the 
juice  to  ferment,  and  thus  inventing  for  themselves 
a  drink  which  to  this  day  is  procured,  prepared,  and 
used  in  exactly  the  same  way,  known  everywhere 
as  the  national  beverage,  pulque.  Indeed,  it  is  now 
raised  in  such  quantities  in  the  valley  of  Anahuac 
as  to  require  a  heavy  railway  train  each  day  on 
three  different  railroads  to  supply  the  demand  in 
the  national  capital  alone.  Whatever  may  be  the 
profit  accruing  to  railways  from  the  traffic  the 
beverage  causes  laziness,  poverty,  distress,  and  ruin 
to  many  a  family  that  otherwise  might  be  prosper 
ous  and  happy.  But  the  day  is  doubtless  near  at 
hand  when  this  wonderful  plant  will  be  cultivated 
more  for  its  fiber  (which  makes  excellent  cordage 
and  superior  paper)  than  for  its  sap.  The  Mexican 
pulque  plant,  like  the  palm  of  the  Arabs  and  the 
bamboo  of  the  East,  serves  many  a  purpose  useful 
as  well  as  ornamental. 

On  the  discovery  of  pulque  one  of  the  nobles  of 
Tollan  went  with  his  daughter  to  present  a  draught 
of  the  beverage  to  the  king.  So  great  was  his  de 
light  with  the  giver  and  with  the  gift  that  she  was 
ordered  to  return  unattended  by  her  father  with 
more,  and  then  she  became  a  royal  prisoner  of  the 


138  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

court.  The  illicit  love  of  Tecpancaltzin,  the  mon 
arch,  brought  with  it  its  punishment.  And  when 
at  last  his  natural  son,  Meconetzin,  sat  upon  the 
throne  the  Toltecs  were  destroyed  as  a  nation  and 
the  remnant  of  that  ancient  people  scattered  far 
and  wide,  the  combined  work  of  internal  dissen 
sions,  famine,  and  an  invading  force  from  Jalisco.  It 
was  here  that  Quetzalcoatl,  the  great  culture  hero, 
the  "  Plumed  Serpent,"  or  "  God  of  the  Air,"  as  he 
was  sometimes  called,  and  better  known  in  the 
United  States  as  the  "  Fair  God,"  played  an  im 
portant  role.  Here  may  be  seen  the  famous  "  Hill 
of  Shouting,"  from  whence  he  sent  his  summons 
and  commands  over  the  entire  valley  of  Anahuac. 
Some  say  that  he  was  a  native  of  the  East,  and 
came  across  the  great  ocean.  Some  say  that  his 
miraculous  birth  was  due  to  the  fact  that  his  mother 
swallowed  a  precious  stone.*  He  has  been  claimed 
by  nearly  every  nationality  on  earth.  The  follow 
ing  description  by  Professor  Short  is  worthy  of  inser 
tion  here  : 

"  From  the  distant  East,  from  the  fabulous 
Huehue  Tlapallan,  this  mysterious  personage  came 
to  Tollan,  and  became  the  patron,  god,  and  high 
priest  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Toltecs.  He  is  de 
scribed  as  having  been  a  white  man,  with  a  strong 

*Chavero,  p.  372. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     139 

formation  of  body,  broad  forehead,  large  eyes,  and 
flowing  beard.  He  wore  a  miter  on  his  head,  and 
was  dressed  in  a  long  white  robe  reaching  to  his 
feet  and  covered  with  red  crosses.  In  his  hand  he 
held  a  sickle.  His  habits  were  ascetic  ;  he  never 
married,  was  most  chaste  and  pure  in  his  life,  and  is 
said  to  have  endured  penance  in  a  neighboring 
mountain,  not  for  its  effects  upon  himself,  but  as  an 
example  to  others.  Some  have  here  found  a  par 
allel  for  Christ's  temptation.  He  condemned  sacri 
fices,  except  of  fruits  and  flowers,  and  was  known 
as  god  of  peace  ;  for  when  addressed  on  the  subject 
of  war  he  is  reported  to  have  stopped  his  ears  with 
his  fingers. 

"  Quetzalcoatl  was  skilled  in  many  parts,  having 
invented  gem  cutting  and  metal  casting.  He  further 
more  originated  letters  and  invented  the  Mexican 
calendar.  The  legend  which  describes  the  latter 
states  that  the  gods,  having  made  men,  thought  it 
advisable  that  their  creatures  should  have  some 
means  of  reckoning  time  and  of  regulating  the 
order  of  religious  ceremonies.  Therefore  two  of 
these  celestial  personages,  one  of  them  a  goddess, 
called  Quetzalcoatl  to  counsel  with  them,  and  the 
three  contrived  a  system  which  they  recorded  on 
tables,  each  bearing  a  single  sign.  That  sign,  how 
ever,  was  accompanied  with  all  necessary  explana- 


140  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

tions  of  its  meaning.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  god 
dess  was  assigned  the  privilege  of  writing  the  first 
sign,  and  that  she  chose  a  serpent  as  her  favorite 
symbol. 

"  Some  accounts  represent  that  Hueman  was  the 
temporal  king,  or  at  least  associated  with  Quetzal- 
coatl  in  the  government,  the  latter  occupying  the 
priestly  as  well  as  the  kingly  office.  Sahagun  calls 
the  associate  ruler  Vemac.  At  all  events,  Quetzal- 
coatl  had  an  enemy,  the  deity  Tezcatlipoca,  whose 
worship  was  quite  opposite  in  its  character  to  that 
of  Quetzalcoatl,  being  sanguine  and  celebrated 
with  horrid  human  sacrifices.  A  struggle  ensued 
in  Tula  (Tollan)  between  the  opposing  systems, 
which  resulted  favorably  to  the  bloody  deity  and 
the  faction  who  sought  to  establish  his  worship  in 
preference  to  the  peaceful  and  ascetic  service  of 
Quetzalcoatl. 

"  Tezcatlipoca,  envious  of  the  magnificence  en 
joyed  by  Quetzalcoatl,  determined  upon  his  destruc 
tion.  His  first  appearance  at  Tula  was  in  the  role 
of  a  great  ball  player,  and  Quetzalcoatl,  being  very 
fond  of  the  game,  engaged  to  play  with  him,  when, 
suddenly,  he  transformed  himself  into  a  tiger,  oc 
casioning  a  panic  among  the  spectators,  in  which 
great  numbers  were  crowded  over  a  precipice  into  a 
river,  where  they  perished.  Again  the  vicious  god 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     141 

appeared  at  Tula.  This  time  he  presented  him 
self  at  the  door  of  Quetzalcoatl's  palace  in  the  guise 
of  an  old  man,  and  asked  permission  of  the  servants 
to  see  his  master.  They  attempted  to  drive  him 
away,  saying  that  the  god  was  ill.  At  last,  because 
of  his  importunities,  they  obtained  leave  to  admit 
him.  Tezcatlipoca  entered,  and,  seeing  the  sick 
deity,  asked  about  his  health,  and  announced  that 
he  had  brought  him  a  medicine  which  would  ease 
his  body,  compose  his  mind,  and  prepare  him  for 
the  journey  which  fate  had  decreed  that  he  must 
undertake. 

"Quetzalcoatl  received  the  sorcerer  kindly,  inquir 
ing  anxiously  as  to  the  journey  and  the  land  of  his 
destiny.  His  deceiver  told  him  that  the  name  of 
the  land  was  Tollan  Tlapallan,  where  his  youth 
would  be  renewed,  and  that  he  must  visit  it  without 
delay.  The  sick  king  was  moved  greatly  by  the 
words  of  the  sorcerer,  and  was  prevailed  upon  to 
taste  the  intoxicating  medicine  which  he  pressed  to 
his  lips.  At  once  he  felt  his  malady  healed,  and  the 
desire  to  depart  fixed  itself  in  his  mind.  *  Drink 
again  ! '  exclaimed  the  old  sorcerer ;  and  again  the 
god  king  pressed  the  cup  to  his  lips  and  drank  till 
the  thought  of  departure  became  indelible,  chained 
his  reason,  and  speedily  drove  him  a  wanderer  from 
his  palace  and  kingdom.  Upon  leaving  Tula, 


142  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

driven  from  his  kingdom  by  the  vicious  enmity  of 
Tezcatlipoca,  he  ordered  his  palaces  of  gold  and  sil 
ver  and  turquoise  and  precious  stones  to  be  set  on 
fire.  The  myriads  of  rich-plumed  songsters  that 
made  the  air  of  the  capital  melodious  with  song  ac 
companied  him  on  his  journey,  pipers  playing  on 
pipes  preceded  him,  and  the  flowers  by  the  way  are 
said  to  have  given  forth  unusual  volumes  of  perfume 
at  his  approach.  After  journeying  one  hundred 
leagues  southward  he  rested  near  a  city  of  Ana- 
huac,  under  a  great  tree,  and,  as  a  memorial  of  the 
event,  he  cast  stones  at  the  tree,  lodging  them  in  its 
trunk.  He  then  proceeded  still  further  southward, 
in  the  same  valley,  until  he  came  to  a  mountain 
two  leagues  distant  from  the  city  of  Mexico.  Here 
he  pressed  his  hands  upon  a  rock  on  which  he 
rested,  and  left  their  prints  imbedded  in  it,  where 
they  remained  visible  down  to  a  very  recent  date. 
He  then  turned  eastward  to  Cholula,  where  he  was 
received  with  greatest  reverence.  The  great  pyra 
mid  was  erected  to  his  honor.  With  his  advent  the 
spirit  of  peace  settled  down  upon  the  city.  War 
was  not  known  during  his  sojourn  in  it.  The  reign 
of  Saturn  repeated  itself.  The  enemies  of  the 
Cholulans  came  with  perfect  safety  to  his  temple, 
and  many  wealthy  princes  of  other  countries  erected 
temples  to  his  honor  in  the  city  of  his  choice. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     143 

"  Here  the  silversmith,  the  sculptor,  the  artist, 
and  the  architect,  we  are  led  to  believe,  from  the 
testimony  of  both  tradition  and  remains,  flourished 
under  the  patronage  of  the  grand  god  king.  How 
ever,  after  twenty  years  had  elapsed  that  subtle, 
feverish  draught  received  from  the  hands  of  Tezcat- 
lipoca  away  back  in  Tula,  like  an  old  poison  in  the 
veins,  renewed  its  power.  Again  his  people,  his 
palaces,  and  his  pyramidal  temple  were  forsaken, 
that  he  might  start  on  his  long  and  final  journey. 
He  told  his  priests  that  the  mysterious  Tlapallan  was 
his  destination,  and,  turning  toward  the  east,  pro 
ceeded  on  his  way  until  he  reached  the  sea  at  a 
point  a  few  miles  south  of  Vera  Cruz.  Here  he 
bestowed  his  blessing  upon  four  young  men  who 
accompanied  him  from  Cholula,  and  commanded 
them  to  go  back  to  their  homes,  bearing  the  prom 
ise  to  his  people  that  he  would  return  to  them  and 
again  set  up  his  kingdom  among  them.  Then,  em 
barking  in  a  canoe  made  of  serpent  skins,  he  sailed 
away  into  the  east. 

"  The  Cholulans,  out  of  respect  to  Quetzalcoatl, 
placed  the  government  in  the  hands  of  the  recipients 
of  his  blessing.  His  statue  was  placed  in  a  sanctuary 
on  the  pyramid,  but  in  a  reclining  position,  represent 
ing  a  state  of  repose,  with  the  understanding  that  it 
shall  be  placed  upon  its  feet  when  the  god  returns. 


144  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

"  When  Cortez  landed  they  believed  their  hopes 
realized,  sacrificed  a  man  to  him,  and  sprinkled  the 
blood  of  the  unhappy  victim  upon  the  conqueror 
and  his  companions."  * 

Most  historians  content  themselves  simply  with 
stating  at  this  period  of  events  that  toward  the 
close  of  the  existence  of  the  Toltec  power  Anahuac 
was  overrun  by  the  incursions  of  a  fierce  and 
dreaded  people,  the  Chichimecs.  However,  the 
origin,  migration,  and  subsequent  history  of  these 
mysterious  people,  of  whom  the  Indians  of  Mexico 
still  freely  talk,  is  certainly  worthy  of  a  few 
moments'  notice.  While  our  information  concern 
ing  their  origin  is  not  as  complete  as  we  could  wish, 
yet  it  is  quite  evident  that  they  were  neighbors  of 
the  Toltecs  in  Huehue  Tlapallan  and,  it  would  ap 
pear,  had  been  in  constant  dread  of  them  before 
and  during  the  migrations. 

We  further  find  that  their  primitive  land  or  home 
was  called  Ainaquemecan ;  of  its  exact  situation, 
Clavigero  says,  we  are  ignorant,  and  yet  he  locates 
it  somewhere  in  North  America,  "  like  the  north  of 
Europe,  the  nursery  of  the  human  race.  From 
both  in  swarms  there  issued  numerous  nations  to 
people  the  countries  in  the  south."  f 

*  North  Americans  of  Antiquity,  p.  267,  et  seq.;    also  Mexico  A 
Tfaves  de  los  Siglos,  vol.  i,  pp.  272-274.  f  Vol.  i,  p.  119. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     145 

Torquemada  locates  it  six  hundred  miles  to  the 
north  of  the  modern  city  of  Guadalajara,  which 
would  bring  it  below  the  Texas  border;  possibly 
he  meant  leagues.  Both  he  and  Ixtlilxochitl  repre 
sent  the  Chichimecs  as  pursuing  and  annoying  the 
Toltecs  in  all  their  wanderings.'  Perhaps  this  is  not 
literally  true,  but  it  does  ap'pear  that  they  reached 
the  borders  of  Anahuac  soon  after  the  Toltecs,  pos 
sibly  within  eleven  years.  It  also  appears  that  early 
in  the  eighth  century  the  Toltecs  consented  as  a 
peace  offering  to  accept  a  Chichimec  prince  for  their 
king,  but  with  the  express  condition  that  the  Tol 
tecs  should  always  be  a  free  people  and  be  in  no 
way  tributary  to  the  Chichimecs. 

At  first  they  doubtless  spoke,  as  Pimentel  as 
serts,*  a  language  distinct  from  the  Nahua  nations, 
but  subsequently  adopted  the  Nahua  tongue,  on 
the  principle  asserted  by  the  French  linguist  Balbi : 
"  It  is  not  the  language  of  the  conquering  people 
that  invariably  dominates,  but  that  which  is  most 
regular  and  cultured."  f  Pimentel  further  says  that 
the  language  of  the  Chichimecs  was  not  only  once 
distinct  from  the  Nahua,  and  "  that  these  people 
came  under  the  civilizing  influences  of  the  Toltecs 
during  their  golden  age,  but  in  their  declining  pe- 

*Vol.  i,  chap,  iii,  Epstein  edition  of  1874. 
f  Quoted  by  Short. 
11 


146  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

riod  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  of  pos~ 
sessing  their  country  and  advanced  civilization." 

If  the  Chichimecs  and  Toltecs  were  neighbors 
when  the  latter  lived  in  Huehue  Tlapallan,  we  might 
naturally  look  for  some  light  on  that  disputed  local 
ity  in  the  Chichimecan  annals ;  but  here  again  we 
are  disappointed.  Amaquemecan  is  the  only  name 
we  find  applied  to  their  primitive  home  or  history. 
Mr.  Bancroft,  after  years  of  arduous  research,  de 
clares  that  "  there  seems  to  be  absolutely  nothing 
to  indicate  whether  Amaquemecan  was  in  the  north 
or  south."  Spanish  authors  all  agree  in  the  direc 
tion,  though  they  disagree  on  the  locality,  assigning 
places  all  the  way  between  Zacatecas,  in  Mexico, 
and  as  far  north  as  Alaska.  It  also  seems  probable 
that  the  great  original  Nahua  empire,  whether  it  is 
named  Huehue  Tlapallan,  Tamoanchan,  Tollan,  or 
Amaquemecan,  was  the  Chichimecan  empire  ;  that 
is,  that  the  Toltecs  or  revolting  branch  constituted 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  Chichimecan  or  Nahua 
people.  At  least  so  Mr.  Bancroft  and  several  other 
historians  think.* 

But,  reverting  to  our  story,  we  find  the  Chichimecs 
arriving  in  considerable  numbers  at  Tollan  (Tula) 
eighteen  months  after  leaving  Amaquemecan  under 
command  of  Xolotl,  according  to  Clavigero,  in  1 170, 

*  Bancroft,  vol.  v,  p.  220. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     147 

though  Lord  Kingsbo rough  puts  it  much  earlier,* 
and  Chavero  shows  clearly  that  they  reached  the 
valley  of  Mexico  as  early  as  63  5.  On  arrival  they 
found  that  the  splendor  of  the  ancient  capital  had 
departed,  "  its  streets  deserted  and  overgrown 
with  vegetation,  its  magnificent  temples  and  palaces 
were  in  ruins,  and  desolation  reigned  where  so  lately 
had  been  the  hum  and  bustle  of  a  mighty  metropo 
lis."  After  leaving  some  of  his  people  in  this  place, 
which  he  considered  too  important  to  entirely  aban 
don,  notwithstanding  its  ruinous  condition,  he  con 
tinued  his  march  to  Lake  Xaltocan,  where  the  peo 
ple  lived  for  some  time  in  caves  until  they  built  the 
town  of  Xoloc,  which  still  exists  and  bears  the  name 
of  this  nomadic  chief  from  the  north.  About  this 
time  they  are  said  to  have  numbered  three  million 
two  hundred  and  two  thousand  men  and  women, 
children  not  included.  Cempoala  and  other  towns 
were  founded,  and  finally  Xolotl  took  up  his  perma 
nent  residence  near  the  present  modern  town  of 
Tezcoco.  On  the  sides  of  the  mountains  overlook 
ing  this  magnificent  valley  I  have  walked  and  have 
ridden  over  acres  of  ruins,  destroyed,  perhaps  at 
first,  by  foreign  invaders,  and  buried  later  by  washes 
from  the  mountains  or  eruptions  from  the  adja 
cent  snow-capped  •  Ixtaccihuatl  and  Popocatepetl, 

*  Mexico  A  Traves  de  los  Sighs,  vol.  i,  p.  353. 


148  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

which  seem  indeed  "  to  kiss  the  firmament,"  and 
which  form  a  most  glorious  background  for  the 
whole  country.  No  wonder  Xolotl  tarried  here. 
Never  did  earthly  king  find  a  more  inspiring  or  a 
grander  spot  to  plant  a  throne.  After  him  reigned 
Xolotl  II,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  his  father  (or  uncle), 
many  smaller  tribes  seemed  glad  to  be  affiliated 
with  this  growing  and  prosperous  kingdom. 

At  Culhuacan,  Chapultepec,  Quauhtitenco,  and 
other  centers  friendly  tribes  were  ruled  over  by 
lords,  while  at  Cholula  two  priests  held  the  reins 
of  government,  all  of  whom  recognized  the  suprem 
acy  of  Xolotl  II.  Representatives  were  dispatched 
to  the  four  quarters  and  in  time  returned,  bringing 
news  of  many  settlements  as  far  south  as  Coatzaco- 
alcos,  Tehuantepec,  and  even  Guatemala.  The  rem 
nants  of  the  Toltecs  in  Anahuac  offered  no  opposi 
tion,  and  the  king  proceeded  to  divide  the  land 
among  his  nobles,  giving  to  each  a  definite  section, 
with  instructions  to  establish  a  central  city  to  be 
named,  in  each  case,  after  its  founder.  This,  doubt 
less,  accounts  for  what  in  some  histories  seems  a 
multiplicity  of  nations. 

The  country  thus  divided  reached  the  gulf  coast, 
and  it  is  said  to  have  been  over  two  hundred  leagues 
in  circumference.  The  heart  of  this  ancient  empire 
is  to-day  the  very  heart  of  the  Methodist  Mission ; 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.    149 

and  where  once  roved  the  half-naked  hunter  and 
semicivilized  princes,  some  two  or  three  score  of 
our  itinerants,  "  clothed  in  their  right  mind," 
under  the  orders  of  "  the  King  of  kings,"  are  march 
ing  to  sure  and  certain  conquest  for  a  kingdom 
which  shall,  unlike  these  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking,  endure  when  the  sun  and  moon  no  longer 
shine. 

Anything  like  a  complete  history  of  the  Chichi- 
mecs  and  their  affiliated  tribes,  their  wars  and  con 
quests,  their  successes  and  rebuffs,  would  require  as 
much  space  as  is  allowed  for  this  entire  course  of 
lectures.  The  student  is  respectfully  referred  to 
Bancroft's,  to  Short's,  to  Clavigero's,  and  to  Lord 
Kingsborough's  valuable  works,  from  all  of  which 
we  learn  that  the  Chichimecan  empire  lasted  from 
the  twelfth  century  down  to  the  year  1521  A.  D., 
during  which  time  they  had  eleven  lawful  kings  and 
two  usurpers  upon  the  throne.  After  this  latter 
date  it  became  a  part  of  the  Mexican  kingdom. 
Before  dismissing  the  subject,  however,  the  follow 
ing  brief  account  of  their  manners  and  customs, 
from  one  of  Mexico's  most  reliable  historians,  may 
be  of  interest : 

"  The  character  of  the'thichimecs,  as  is  shown  by 
their  history,  was  very  singular,  as  a  certain  degree 
of  civilization  was  blended  with  many  traits  of  bar- 


150  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

barism.  They  lived  under  the  command  of  a  sov 
ereign,  and  the  chiefs  and  governors  deputed  by 
him,  with  as  much  submission  as  is  usual  among 
the  most  cultivated  nations. 

"  There  were  distinctions  between  the  nobility 
and  commonalty,  and  the  plebeians  were  accus 
tomed  to  reverence  those  whose  birth,  merit,  or 
favor  with  the  prince  raised  them  above  other 
ranks.  They  dwelt  in  communities  together,  in 
places  composed,  as  we  may  imagine,  of  poor  huts ; 
but  they  neither  practiced  agriculture  nor  those 
arts  which  accompany  civil  life.  They  lived  only 
on  game  and  fruits  and  roots  which  the  earth 
spontaneously  produced.  Their  clothing  was  the 
rough  skins  of  the  wild  beasts  they  took  in  prey, 
and  their  arms  no  other  than  the  bow  and  arrow. 
Their  religion  was  reduced  to  the  simple  worship 
of  the  sun,  to  which  pretended  divinity  they  offered 
herbs  and  flowers  which  they  found  springing  in  the 
fields.  With  respect  to  their  customs,  they  were 
certainly  less  displeasing  and  less  rude  than  those 
to  which  the  genius  of  a  nation  of  hunters  gives 
birth."* 

The  arrival  of  the  Nahuatlaca  tribes  about  this 
time  deserves  special  notice.  They  came  in  differ 
ent  numbers,  at  different  times,  and  under  a  variety 

*  Clavigero,  vol.  i,  p.  120. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.    151 

of  names.  Their  original  home  was  Aztlan,  which 
Bourbourg  locates  in  California ;  Prescott,  Gondra, 
and  Humboldt,  "  north  of  42°  north  latitude " 
(Oregon,  perhaps)  ;  Clavigero  says,  "  north  of  the 
Colorado  River ;  "  the  more  recent  school  of  Ameri 
canists  gives  it  a  southern  location  ;  while  Father 
Duran,  after  locating  it  in  Florida  and  asserting  that 
his  conclusions  cannot  be  doubted,  like  all  his  con 
temporaneous  authors,  reverently  adds,  "  Although 
in  all  I  submit  myself  to  the  correction  of  the  holy 
Catholic  Church." 

Further  along  in  his  History  this  same  author 
tells  us  how  the  royal  chronologist,  the  aged  Cueuh- 
coatl,  described  Aztlan  to  the  elder  Moctezuma 
when  summoned  to  the  court  for  this  purpose.  He 
replied  to  the  emperor's  question  as  follows: 

"  Our  fathers  dwelt  in  that  happy  and  prosperous 
place  which  they  called  Aztlan,  which  means  '  white 
ness.'  In  this  place  there  is  a  great  mountain  in 
the  middle  of  the  water,  which  is  called  Culhuacan, 
because  it  has  the  point  somewhat  turned  over  to 
ward  the  bottom,  and  for  this  cause  it  is  called 
Culhuacan,  which  means  'crooked  mountain.' 

"  In  this  mountain  were  some  openings  or  caves 
or  hollows  where  our  fathers  and  ancestors  lived 
for  many  years  ;  there,  under  this  name  Mexitin  and 

*  His  tor  ia  de  las  InJias,  vol.  i,  p.  9. 


152  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Aztec,  they  had  much  repose ;  there  they  enjoyed  a 
great  plenty  of  ducks ;  of  all  species  of  marine  birds 
and  water  fowls  ;  enjoyed  the  song  and  melody  of 
birds  with  yellow  crests ;  enjoyed  many  kinds  of 
large  and  beautiful  fish ;  enjoyed  the  freshness  of 
trees  that  were  upon  those  shores,  and  fountains  in 
closed  with  elders  and  savins  (junipers)  and  alder 
trees,  both  large  and  beautiful.  They  went  about 
in  canoes,  and  made  furrows  in  which  they  planted 
maize,  red  peppers,  tomatoes,  beans,  and  all  kinds  of 
seed  that  we  eat."  ' 

The  causes  which  impelled  their  exodus  from 
such  a  delightful  country  can  only  be  conjectured  ; 
but  it  is  likely  that  they  were  driven  out  by  a  more 
powerful  people.  The  native  tradition  relates  that 
a  bird  was  heard  for  many  days  repeating  the  word 
"  Tihui,  tihui,"  which  means,  "  Let  us  go,  let  us  go." 
With  the  same  bird  still  singing  in  the  forests  of 
Mexico  his  melancholy  "  Tihui,  tihui,"  it  is  difficult 
to  persuade  the  descendants  of  these  primitive  races 
that  old  Huitzitin  and  Tecpatzin,  wisest  among  the 
Nahuatlaca-  chiefs,  did  not  receive  a  message  from 
the  gods  directing  their  people  to  seek  a  new  home. 

After  twenty-six  years  they  reached  Chicomoztoc, 
the  famous  "  seven  caves,"  which  is  regarded  by 
Clavigero  to  be  twenty  miles  south  of  the  modern 

*Historia  de  las  Indias,  vol.  i,  p.  219. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     153 

l.)\vn  of  Zacatecas,  where  still  exist  the  ruins  of 
some  great  edifice.  Seven  tribes  at  least  were  cen 
tered,  at  one  time,  in  Chicomoztoc,  though  some 
authors  add  the  names  of  eight  others.*  Of  the 
seven  we  will  take  time  to  mention  only  two,  the 
two  which  eventually  rose  to  great  political  impor 
tance.  We  refer  to  the  Tlascalans,  who  founded  a 
small  though  independent  republic,  and  the  Aztecs, 
"  whose  empire  has  been  the  wonder  of  students  of 
antiquity  and  subject  of  histories  as  romantic  as  the 
purest  fiction." 

The  first  named,  the  Tlascalans,  on  arrival  at 
Anahuac,  established  at  Poyauhtlan,  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  Lake  Tezcoco.  After  they  grew  in  num 
bers  and  attempted  to  usurp  the  lands  of  neighbor 
ing  tribes,  they  so  stirred  up  the  latter  as  to  cause 
three  or  four  of  them  to  make  an  alliance  and  to 
march  against  the  Tlascalans.  Being  driven  from 
the  valley,  part  of  them  obtained  permission  to  set 
tle  in  Tollantzingo  and  in  Quauhchinanco,  while 
more  than  half  of  them  found  their  way  to  Cholula, 
where  they  dislodged  the  Olmecs  and  Xicalancas. 
Soon  after,  however,  the  jealousy  of  neighboring 
tribes  gave  them  trouble,  and  they  were  obliged  to 
seek  anew  the  protection  of  the  Chichimecan  king, 
and  by  the  aid  of  their  allied  forces  they  came  off 

*  Bancroft,  vol.  v,  p.  307. 


154  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

victorious.  After  a  declaration  of  peace  they  forti 
fied  themselves  in  a  permanent  home.  On  their 
north  and  south  rose  nature's  great  bulwarks,  the 
precipitous  mountains,  on  their  west  they  dug  a  great 
trench,  and  on  their  east  built  a  high  wall  six  miles 
in  length,  reaching  completely  across  their  territory 
from  mountain  to  mountain.  Within  this  small  in- 
closure  have  lived  the  warlike  and  courageous  Tlas- 
calans  during  all  these  centuries,  ever  jealous  of 
their  honor  and  liberty.  For  a  long  time,  and  in 
spite  of  all  opposition,  they  upheld  the  splendor  of 
their  little  republic,  until,  at  length,  in  confederacy 
with  the  Spaniards,  they  marched  against  their  an 
cient  rivals,  the  Mexicans,  and  in  some  measure 
shared  a  common  ruin.  Yet,  though  part  of  the 
Mexican  federation,  they  retain  many  of  their  dis 
tinctive  peculiarities,  and  their  ancient  republic  is 
now  known  as  the  State  of  Tlascala.  The  meaning 
of  the  word  is  "a  place  of  bread,"  and  derives  its 
origin  from  the  great  abundance  of  maize  produced 
on  its  soil. 

Some  idea  of  the  bravery  of  these  noble  Indians 
may  be  had  from  a  circumstance  connected  with  their 
early  history.  Since  the  time  of  the  first  Moctezuma 
all  Mexican  kings  treated  the  Tlascalans  as  enemies. 
Strong  garrisons  were  maintained  along  the  frontiers 
of  Tlascala  so  as  to  prevent  trade  with  other  tribes, 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     155 

and  especially  with  the  coast.  Finding  themselves 
thus  deprived  of  the  source  of  the  necessaries  of  life, 
the  Tlascalans  sent  a  complaint  to  the  Mexican 
court.  The  Mexicans,  exalted  by  their  prosperity, 
replied  "  that  the  King  of  Mexico  was  lord  of  all  the 
world,  and  all  mortals  were  his  vassals,"*  and  as 
such  the  Tlascalans  should  render  him  obedience 
and  pay  him  tribute  ;  otherwise  their  city  would  be 
sacked,  they  should  perish,  and  their  country  be  in 
habited  by  another  people. 

To  this  arrogant  answer  the  ambassador  replied  : 
"  Most  powerful  lords,  Tlascala  owes  you  no  sub 
mission,  nor  have  the  Tlascalans  ever  acknowledged 
any  prince  with  tributes  since  their  ancestors  left 
the  countries  in  the  north  to  inhabit  this  land. 
They  have  always  preserved  their  liberty,  and,  being 
unaccustomed  to  the  slavery  to  which  you  pretend 
to  subject  them,  rather  than  submit  to  your  power 
they  will  shed  more  blood  than  their  fathers  shed 
in  the  famous  battle  of  Payauhtlan."  Without  the 
alliance  of  such  a  people  the  Spanish  conquest 
would  have  been  impossible  to  Cortez. 

The  last  of  these  migrating  tribes  from  the  north 
to  reach  the  valley  of  Anahuac  was  the  Aztec. 
They  left  Aztlan  with  the  Nahuatlaca  tribes,  but 
remained  longer  in  Chicomoztoc  than  the  others,  so 

*Vol.  i,  p.  291. 


156  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

that  they  did  not  reach  Chapultepec  till  toward  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  century,  nearly  four  hundred 
years  before  the  conquest.  Perhaps  no  point  of 
primitive  Mexican  history  has  given  origin  to 
greater  discussion  than  the  line  of  march  followed 
by  the  Aztecs  in  their  journey  from  Aztlan  to  An- 
ahuac.  Mr.  Bancroft  says  :  "  It  is  utterly  useless  to 
attempt  its  clearing  up,  and  I  dispose  of  the  whole 
matter  by  simply  presenting  in  a  note  the  dates 
and  successive  halting  places  attributed  to  this 
migration  by  the  principal  authorities.''  The  time 
required  to  read  his  extended  note  is  more  than  we 
can  allow  here.* 

Perhaps  Clavigero's  plan  is  as  correct  as  any, 
and  as  it  has  the  virtue  of  being  shorter  than 
others  we  insert  it  here.  It  is  as  follows: 

"The  Aztecs  left  Aztlan  in  1160,  crossed  the 
Colorado  River,  stayed  three  years  at  Huecolhuacan, 
went  east  to  Chicomoztoc,  where  they  separated 
from  the  Nahuatlaca  tribes,  then  to  Coatlicamac, 
and  reached  Tula  in  1 196,  remaining  nine  years  ; 
then  spent  eleven  years  in  different  places,  reached 
Zumpanco  in  1216,  remaining  seven  years,  then 
Tizajocan,  Tolpetlac,  Tepejacac,  and  Chapultepec 
in  1245  during  Nopaltzin's  reign,  "f 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  v,  pp.  322-324. 
f  Clavigero,  vol.  i,  pp.   150—156. 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     157 

They  had  not  been  long  on  their  journey  till  their 
religious  tendency  asserted  itself.  So  they  made  a 
wooden  image  to  represent  Huitzilopochtli,  the 
tutelar  deity  of  the  nation.  They  then  made  a 
chair  of  reeds  and  rushes  in  which  to  carry  the 
image,  and  which  they  called  Tcoicpalli,  or  "  chair 
of  God.''  Four  priests  at  a  time  were  to  carry  him 
on  their  shoulders,  and  they  were  called  Teotlamocaz- 
que,  "  servants  of  God,"  and  the  act  itself  was  called 
Teomana,  that  is,  "  to  carry  God  on  one's  back." 

Mr.  Bancroft  *  says  that  this  Teoicpalli  was  a 
holy  box,  such  as  was  used  among  the  Etruscans 
and  Egyptians,  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  in 
Ilium,  among  the  Japanese  and  among  the  Mongols. 
In  America  the  Cherokees  are  also  found  with  such 
an  ark.  Wherever  the  Aztecs  halted  for  some  time 
during  their  wanderings  they  erected  an  altar  or 
a  sacrifice  mound  to  their  god,  upon  which  they 
placed  this  god's  litter  with  the  image,  which 
ancient  observation  they  kept  up  in  later  times  in 
their  temples.  By  its  side  they  erected  a  movable 
tent,  tabcrnaculiiHi,  in  the  open  country,  as  is  cus 
tomary  among  nomadic  peoples,  such  as  the  Mon 
gols.  All  of  which  reminds  us  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  carried  by  the  Levites,  and  the  tabernacle 
in  the  wilderness. 

*  Native  Races,  vol.  iii,  p.  303. 


158  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Just  after  leaving  Chicomoztoc  and  prior  to 
reaching  Tula  a  quarrel  divided  the  tribe  into  two 
factions,  so  much  so  that  they  finally  became  per 
petual  rivals.  Tradition  says  that  the  quarrel  arose 
over  two  bundles  which  miraculously  appeared  in 
their  camp.  On  examining  one  bundle  it  was  found 
to  contain  an  emerald  of  extraordinary  size  and 
beauty.  The  other  was  found  to  contain  nothing 
but  two  pieces  of  wood.  The  party  opening  the 
first  bundle  called  themselves  Tlaltelulcas,  and  con 
sidered  themselves  the  more  fortunate,  while  the 
other  faction,  with  the  two  pieces  of  wood,  called 
themselves  henceforth  Mexicans,  and  were  supposed 
to  be  the  unfortunate  ones.  But  when  Huitziton 
made  known  to  them  a  novel  process  of  producing 
fire  by  rubbing  two  sticks  together  (an  invention 
ever  after  prized  by  these  people)  they  concluded 
that  science  and  industry  were  preferable  even  to 
beauty  or  nobility  as  typified  by  the  emerald. 

Another  legend  oft  quoted,  and  which  has  left 
its  perpetual  sign  on  the  Mexican  escutcheon,  will 
bear  repeating  here  :  Not  long  after  the  event  just 
referred  to  another  mystery  occurred  in  the  camp. 
Their  aged  high  priest,  Huitziton,  died  or  suddenly 
disappeared  during  the  night.  The  next  morning 
the  report  was  everywhere  circulated  by  his  fellow- 
priests  that  he  had  taken  his  place  among  the  gods, 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     159 

and  that  on  his  arrival  there  he  was  assured  by  the 
great  Tetzuah  that,  though  dead,  he  would  still 
"  guide  and  rule  them  from  on  high  "  and  "  show 
unto  them  the  land  which  I  have  chosen  for  them, 
where  they  will  have  a  long  and  prosperous  empire." 
Abbe  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  adds  to  the  speech, 
"  Where  they  shall  find  a  nopal  growing  alone  on  a 
rock  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  and  on  this  nopal  an 
eagle  holding  a  serpent  in  his  claws  ;  there  they  are 
To  halt,  there  will  be  the  seat  of  their  empire,  there 
will  my  temple  be  built."  * 

This  story  is  still  told  to  justify  the  location  of  the 
national  capital  on  its  present  site.  Our  own  famous 
Bishop  Simpson,  during  his  episcopal  visit  to  our 
sister  republic  in  1873,  saw  everywhere  this  em 
blem  of  the  eagle  on  the  nopal  struggling  with  the 
serpent  ;  and  when  invited  one  day  to  a  banquet 
in  the  American  Legation,  having  among  the  audi 
tors  of  his  after-dinner  speech  President  Lerdo  de 
Tejada,  made  the  happy  hit,  comparing  the  eagles 
of  the  two  sister  republics,  that  the  special  differ 
ence  between  the  American  and  the  Mexican  eagle 
was  "  that  the  latter,  though  still  struggling  with  the 
serpent  of  tyranny  which  the  former  had  crushed, 
would  soon,  like  the  former,  be  absolutely  free." 

After  a  most  circuitous  route  the  Aztecs  came  at 

*  Native  Racest  vol.  v,  p.  327. 


160  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

last  to  their  journey's  end.  And  when  we  remem 
ber  that  they  were  in  quest  of  such  a  country  as 
would  afford  them  all  the  conveniences  of  life  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that  their  migration  was  a 
very  circuitous  one.  Nor  is  it  surprising  that  in 
some  cases  they  commenced  to  build  palaces  and 
temples,  for  they  probably  thought  every  stop 
would  end  their  peregrination.  Wherever  they 
halted  they  raised  an  altar  to  their  god,  and  in 
most  cases  representatives  of  their  people  remained 
behind,  especially  the  aged  and  feeble  and  those 
weary  of  a  wandering  life.  After  Tula  they  came 
to  Zumpanco,  Tizayocan,  Tepeyaca,  Chapultepec, 
Mexicaltzingo,  Ixtacalco,  and  other  places,  till  at 
last  they  found  a  nopal  growing  on  a  stone,  and  on 
it  the  eagle  struggling  with  a  serpent.  This  place 
they  named  Tenochtitlan,the  name  by  which  Mexico 
city  was  known  for  ages.  They  immediately  pro 
ceeded  to  erect  a  temple  for  their  god  Huitzilo- 
pichitli,  at  \vhich  time  a  human  being  was  offered 
in  sacrifice.  One  of  the  Mexicans  went  to  hunt  an 
animal  for  said  sacrifice,  but  finding  none  he  laid 
hands  upon  a  Colhuan  of  a  neighboring  tribe,  bound 
and  dragged  him  to  the  temple,  where  "  with  great 
jubilee  his  heart  was  torn  from  his  breast  as  he  lay 
on  the  altar,  and  offered  to  their  god."  At  this 
time  the  city  was  also  called  Mexico  from  the  other 


EARLY  MEXICANS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY.     161 

• 

of  their  gods,  that  is,  the  place  or  home  of  Mcxitli. 
Such,  in  1325,  was  the  beginning  of  the  city  of 
Tenochtitlan,  which  in  future  times  was  to  be  the 
court  of  a  great  empire,  arid  which  in  later  years 
Clavigero  was  pleased  to  call  "  the  largest  and  most 

beautiful  city  of  the  New  World." 
12 


LECTURE  V. 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS  AND  THE  KING  DAVID 
OF  MEXICO. 


LECTURE    V. 

THE    MOCTEZUMAS   AND   THE   KING  DAVID   OF 
MEXICO. 

AT  the  close  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  four 
teenth  century  the  situation  in  Mexico  was 
about  as  follows :  The  Aztecs,  or  Mexicans,  as 
they  were  afterward  called,  had  planted  their  king 
dom  in  Tenochtitlan  within  somewhat  circumscribed 
territory,  having  for  their  central  city,  in  the  heart 
of  the  valley  lakes,  the  spot  where  eagle,  nopal,  and 
serpent  were  to  be  found  in  mystic  combination ; 
a  spot  destined  in  future  ages  to  be  the  site  of  Moc- 
tezuma's  Halls,  the  seat  of  Spanish  viceregal  splen 
dor,  the  brief  American  occupation  under  Scott,  the 
turbulent  court  of  French  and  Austrian  usurpation, 
the  theater  alike  of  gayety,  mourning,  and  the  re 
publican  capital  of  a  united  and  prosperous  nation. 
"  The  term  Mexico  has  widely  different  mean 
ings  under  different  conditions.  At  first  it  signified 
only  the  capital  of  the  Nahua  nation,  and  it  was 
five  hundred  years  before  it  overspread  the  terri 
tory  now  known  by  that  name.  Mexico  city  was 
founded  in  1325,  and  was  called  Mexico  Tenochtitlan. 


i66  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

s 
The   latter  appellation   has    been    connected  with 

Tenoch,  the  Aztec  leader  at  that  time,  and  with 
the  sign  of  a  nopal  on  a  stone,  called  in  Aztec  re 
spectively  nochtli  and  tetl,  the  final  syllable  repre 
senting  locality,  and  the  first,  Te,  divinity  or  superi 
ority.  The  word  Mexico,  however,  was  then  rarely 
used,  Tenochtitlan  beting  the  common  term  em 
ployed  ;  and  this  was  retained  by  the  Spaniards  for 
some  time  after  the  conquest,  even  in  imperial  de 
cree,  and  in  the  official  records  of  the  city,  though 
in  the  corrupt  forms  of  Temixtitan,  Tenustitan,  etc. 
.  .  .  Torquemada  (i,  293)  states  distinctly  that 
even  in  his  time  the  natives  never  employed  any 
other  designation  for  the  ancient  city  than  Tenoch 
titlan,  which  was  also  the  name  of  the  chief  and  fash 
ionable  ward. 

"  Solis  ...  is  of  the  opinion  that  Mexico  was 
the  name  of  the  ward,  Tenochtitlan  being  applied  to 
the  whole  city,  in  which  case  Mexico  Tenochtitlan 
would  signify  the  ward  Mexico  of  the  city  Tenoch 
titlan. 

"  Gradually  the  Spanish  records  began  to  add 
Mexico  to  Tenochtitlan,  and  in  those  of  the  first 
provincial  council,  held  in  1555,  we  find  written 
Tenuxtitlan  Mexico.  .  .  .  In  the  course  of  time  the 
older  and  more  intricate  name  disappeared,  though 
the  city  arms  always  retained  the  symbolic  nopal 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  167 

and  stone.  ...  A  number  of  derivations  have  been 
given  to  the  word  Mexico,  as  Mextli,  navel  of  the 
maguey,  Metl-ico,  place  amidst  the  maguey ;  Mex 
ico,  on  the  maguey  border ;  Mecitli,  hare ;  Metzli, 
moon  ;  Amexica  or  Mexica,  you  of  the  anointed 
ones.  The  signification  spring  or  fountain  has  also 
been  applied.  But  most  writers  have  contented 
themselves  by  assuming  it  to  be  identical  with  the 
Mexi,  Mexitl,  or  Mecitl,  appellation  of  the  war  god 
Huitzilopochtli,  to  which  has  been  added  the  Co, 
an  affix  implying  locality ;  hence  Mexico  would 
imply  the  place  or  settlement  of  Mexica  or  Mexi 
cans. 

"This  war  god  Huitzilopochtli,  as  is  well  known, 
was  the  mythic  leader  and  chief  deity  of  the  Aztecs, 
the  dominant  tribe  of  the  Nahua  nation.  It  was  by 
this  august  personage,  who  was  also  called  Mexitli, 
that  according  to  tradition  the  name  was  given  them 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  in  these  words:  *  Inax- 
can  aocmoamotoca  ynamaz  te  ca  ye  am  Mexica'— 
Henceforth  bear  ye  not  the  name  of  Azteca,  but 
Mexica.  With  this  command  they  received  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  a  patch  of  gum  and  feathers 
to  wear  upon  their  foreheads  and  ears."  * 

This  little  kingdom  had  an   aristocratic  form  of 
government  down  to  the  year    1352,   with  twenty 

*  Bancroft,  vol.  ix,  p.  12. 


1 68  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

lords  for  rulers,  the  chief  of  them  Tenoch.  Stimu 
lated  by  the  example  of  their  neighbors,  the  Chichi- 
mecs,  the  Tepanecs,  and  the  Colhuas,  they  erected 
a  monarchy  with  ambitious  pretensions.  Acama- 
pitzin,  famous  and  prudent,  was  chosen  king,  and 
after  applying  in  vain  to  three  adjoining  realms  they 
secured  at  last  from  Coatlinchan  a  noble  princess 
for  their  young  king  as  well  as  a  queen  for  them 
selves.  Their  nearest  neighbors,  the  Tlatelolcos, 
followed  their  example  and  erected  a  kingdom  and 
invited  Quaquauhpitzahuac,  son  of  Atzcapozalco,  of 
the  Tepaneca  nation,  to  accept  the  crown.  This  he 
did  in  1353. 

The  Tezcocans  across  the  lake  were  building  up 
the  Athens  of  Anahuac,  for  here  was  a  seat  of 
learning  which  has  been  the  marvel  of  centuries. 
The  kingdom  of  Acolhuacan  was  near  by,  but  was 
too  full  of  internal  dissensions  to  have  permanent 
existence,  and  when  Chimalpopoca  ascended  the 
Mexican  throne  the  Acolhuacan  heard  its  death- 
knell  as  an  independent  nation,  andTezozomoc,  the 
decrepit  old  king,  "  a  monster  of  ambition,  treach 
ery,  and  injustice,"  ceased  to  live  in  1422. 

However,  the  Tezcocans  and  their  civilization  de 
serve  more  than  a  mere  passing  notice.  Here  flour 
ished  a  civilization  and  center  of  learning  which  com 
mands  our  admiration.  We  find  the  government 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  169 

divided  into  departments,  such  as  a  council  of  war, 
a  council  of  finance,  a  council  of  justice,  and  a  coun 
cil  of  state.  In  each  of  these  departments  a  certain 
number  of  citizens  had  voice  and  vote. 

There  is  also  a  council  of  music,  which,  different 
from  the  meaning  of  its  name,  was  devoted  to  sci 
ence  and  art.  Here  the  historian,  the  astronomer, 
the  chronologer,  and  all  other  writers  were  obliged  to 
submit  their  works  before  publication.  This  was 
exercising  censorial  power  over  the  press  with  a 
vengeance.  Mr.  Prescott  calls  it  "  a  general  board 
of  education  for  the  country,"  and  adds  that  the 
influence  of  this  academy  must  have  been  most  pro 
pitious  to  the  capital,  which  became  the  nursery,  not 
only  of  such  sciences  as  could  be  compassed  by  the 
scholarship  of  the  period,  but  of  various  useful  and 
ornamental  arts.  Its  historians,  orators,  and  poets 
were  celebrated  throughout  the  country.  Its  ar 
chives,  for  which  accommodations  were  provided  in 
the  royal  palace,  were  stored  with  the  records  of 
primitive  ages.  Its  idiom,  more  polished  than  the 
Mexican,  was,  indeed,  the  purest  of  all  the  Nahu- 
atlac  dialects,  and  continued,  long  after  the  conquest, 
to  be  that  in  which  the  best  productions  of  the  na 
tive  races  were  composed.  Tezcoco  claimed  the 
glory  of  being  the  Athens  of  the  western  world. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  wonder  of  Tezcoco  and  the 


170  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

age  of  which  we  now  speak  was  the  emperor,  Neza- 
hualcoyotl,  who  lived  in  a  royal  white  palace  nearly 
three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  length  and  half  a  mile  in 
width.  He  was  frequently  in  the  academy  himself, 
now  as  critic,  now  as  orator.  He  wrote  so  many 
songs  that  he  is  frequently  referred  to  as  the  King 
David  of  Mexican  history.  Some  of  these  have 
been  translated  by  his  direct  descendant  of  the 
fourth  generation,  Ixtlilxochitl,  and  from  them  we 
gather  something  of  the  style.  One  of  them  ran 
like  this: 

"  Yo  tocare  cantando 

El  Musico  instrumento  sonoroso 

Tu  de  flores  gozando 

Danza,  y  festeja  a  Dios  que  es  poderoso  ; 

O  gozemos  de  esta  gloria, 

Porque  la  humana  vida  es  transitoria." 

Dr.  John  Foster  Kirk  well  says  that  the  English 
poet,  Herrick,  has  beautifully  expressed  this  very 
common  sentiment  of  the  bard  not  only  of  Tezcoco, 
but  of  many  other  nations,  in  the  following  lines  : 

"Gather  the  rosebuds  while  you  may, 

Old  time  is  still  a-flying  ; 
The  fairest  flower  that  blooms  to-day 

To-morrow  may  be  dying." 

The  evolution  of  the  religious  belief  of  the  old 
king  is  intensely  interesting.  He  was  not  married 
till  late  in  life.  Then,  being  disappointed  in  having 
no  issue,  he  was  led  by  the  priests,  though  reluc- 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  171 

tanctly,  to  offer  human  sacrifices  to  the  gods  as  his 
only  hope.  But  though  the  altars  again  smoked 
with  the  blood  of  slaughtered  captives  it  was  all  in 
vain.  Then  he  declared  :  "  These  idols  of  wood 
and  stone  can  neither  hear  nor  feel,  much  less  could 
they  make  the  heavens,  and  the  earth  and  man,  the 
lord  of  it.  These  must  be  the  work  of  the  all-power 
ful  unknown  God,  Creator  of  the  universe,  on  whom 
alone  I  must  rely  for  consolation  and  support." 

After  forty  days  of  fasting  and  meditation  in  his 
rural  palace  of  Tezcotzinco  he  publicly  professed 
his  new  faith  and  labored  to  wean  his  subjects  from 
their  superstitions.  "  He  built  a  temple  in  the  reg 
ular  pyramidal  form,  and  in  the  summit  a  tower 
nine  stories  high,  to  represent  the  nine  heavens ;  a 
tenth  was  surmounted  by  a  roof  painted  black,  and 
profusely  gilded  with  stars  on  the  outside  and  in- 
crusted  with  metals  and  precious  stones  within.  He 
dedicated  this  to  '  the  unknown  God,  the  Cause  of 
causes  '  (A  I  Dios  no  conocido,  causa  de  las  causas. — 
MS.  de  Ixtlilxochitl).  It  seems  probable,  from  the 
emblem  on  the  tower,  as  well  as  from  the  complex 
ion  of  the  verses,  as  we  shall  see,  that  he  mingled 
with  his  reverence  for  the  Supreme  Being  the  astral 
worship  which  existed  among  the  Aztecs.  Various 
musical  instruments  were  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
tower,  and  the  sound  of  them,  accompanied  by  the 


172  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

ringing  of  a  sonorous  metal  struck  by  a  mallet,  suiru 
moned  the  worshipers  to  prayers  at  regular  seasons. 
No  image  was  allowed  in  the  edifice,  as  unsuitable 
to  the  'invisible  God,'  and  the  people  were  ex 
pressly  prohibited  from  profaning  the  altars  with 
blood  or  any  other  sacrifices  than  that  of  the  per 
fume  of  flowers  and  sweet-scented  gums."  * 

His  declining  years  were  spent  in  the  study  of 
astronomy  and  "  to  meditation  on  his  immortal 
destiny."  His  later  verses  show  clearly  that  he 
turned  for  consolation  "  to  the  world  beyond  the 
grave."  So  he  says:  "All  things  on  earth  have 
their  term,  and  in  the  most  joyous  career  of  their 
vanity  and  splendor  their  strength  fails  and  they 
sink  into  the  dust.  All  the  round  world  is  but  a 
sepulcher,  and  there  is  nothing  which  lives  on  its 
surface  that  shall  not  be  hidden  and  entombed  be 
neath  it.  Rivers,  torrents,  and  streams  move  on 
ward  to  their  destination.  Not  one  flows  back  to 
its  pleasant  source.  They  rush  onward,  hastening 
to  bury  themselves  in  the  deep  bosom  of  the  ocean. 
The  things  of  yesterday  are  no  more  to-day,  and 
the  things  of  to-day  will  cease,  perhaps,  on  the  mor 
row.  The  cemetery  is  full  of  the  loathsome  dust  of 
bodies  once  quickened  by  living  souls  who  occu 
pied  thrones,  presided  over  assemblies,  marshaled 

*  Prescott's  Conquest,  vol.  i,  p.  89,  Lippincott's  edition. 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  173 

armies,  subdued  provinces,  arrogated  to  themselves 
worship,  were  puffed  up  with  vainglorious  pomp 
and  power  and  empire. 

"  But  these  glories  have  all  passed  away  like  the 
fearful  smoke  that  issues  from  the  throat  of  Popo 
catepetl,  with  no  other  memorial  of  their  existence 
than  the  record  on  the  page  of  the  chronicler.  The 
great,  the  wise, the  valiant,  and  the  beautiful — alas! 
where  are  they  now  ?  They  are  all  mingled  with 
the  clod,  and  that  which  has  befallen  them  shall 
happen  to  us  and  to  those  that  come  after  us.  Yet, 
let  us  take  courage,  illustrious  nobles  and  chieftains, 
true  friends  and  loyal  subjects,  let  us  aspire  to  that 
heaven  where  all  is  eternal  and  corruption  cannot 
come.  The  horrors  of  the  tomb  are  but  the  cradle 
of  the  sun,  and  the  dark  shadows  of  death  are  bril 
liant  light  for  the  stars.' '* 

Nezahualcoyotl  died  in  1470,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
two  years,  having  ruled  nearly  half  a  century.  He 
had  done  great  things  for  his  people  by  breathing 
into  them  new  life  and  inspiration,  extending  their 
domains  and  lifting  them  high  in  the  march  of  civ 
ilization.  His  closing  hours,  blessed  by  the  tender 
embrace  of  his  eight-year-old  child  and  the  commit 
tal  to  him  of  the  crown,  the  final  exhortation  to  his 
other  children,  the  farewell  to  his  ministers  of  state, 

*  Prescott's  Conquest,  vol.  i,  p.  89. 


1/4  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

and  other  touching  incidents,  are  graphically  por 
trayed  by  Prescott  and  other  historians — incidents 
that  are  most  pathetic.  But  for  that  one  foul  blot 
of  murder  committed  by  him  to  obtain  for  wife  one 
already  betrothed  to  another  he  might,  indeed,  be 
considered  "  the  greatest  and  best  monarch  who 
ever  sat  upon  an  Indian  throne." 

But  to  return  to  the  neighboring  nations.  Dis 
sensions  continued  for  some  time  among  these  and 
other  tribes  in  and  adjoining  the  valley  of  Anahuac, 
till  the  Tepanecs  were  defeated  and  Atzcapotzalco 
was  conquered.  It  was  about  this  time  that  the 
first  of  the  Moctezumas,  the  beginning  of  a  glorious 
line,  was  born,  rose  to  prominence  and  gave  an  ex 
ample  of  civic  bravery  and  of  superstitious  coward 
ice  which  is  quoted  with  the  passing  centuries. 

The  Mexicans  were  at  war  with  neighboring 
tribes  which  had  united  to  dislodge  them  from  their 
charmed  and  coveted  Chapultepec.  Moctezuma, 
not  yet  thirty  years  of  age,  had  been  put  in  charge 
of  the  forces  marching  under  the  triple  insignia : 
the  eagle,  the  nopal,  and  the  serpent.  The  superior 
forces  of  the  enemy  had  well-nigh  crushed  the  Az 
tec,  and  it  looked  as  though  a  retreat  would  be 
ordered.  Just  then,  and  a  little  before  sunset,  as  re 
inforcements  continued  to  swell  the  enemy's  forces, 
dismay  and  complaint  were  widespread.  Some 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  175 

even  cried  out,  "  What  are  we  about,  O  Mexicans? 
Shall  we  do  well  in  sacrificing  our  lives  to  the  am 
bition  of  our  king  and  our  general?" 

The  king  called  a  hasty  council  of  princes  and 
generals  on  the  field  of  battle  and  propounded  the 
question,  "  What  shall  we  do?" 

"  What  ?  "  answered  the  noble  young  Moctezuma  ; 
"  fight  till  death  !  If  we  die  with  our  arms  in  our 
hands,  defending  our  liberty,  we  will  do  our  duty- 
If  we  survive  our  defeat  we  will  remain  covered 
with  eternal  confusion.  Let  us  go,  then ;  let  us 
fight  till  we  die." 

King,  nobles,  officers,  and  soldiers  caught  the  in 
spiration  of  the  hour  and  exclaimed  in  one  voice, 
"  Let  us  die  with  glory."  On  they  rushed  ;  some 
to  death,  it  is  true,  but  as  a  body  to  complete  and 
speedy  victory.  From  that  day  to  this  the  name 
of  Moctezuma  I  has  been  a  synonym  for  bravery. 
The  mere  name  of  Moctezuma,  the  gallant  Tzin,  on 
all  festive  occasions  will  now  send  a  thrill  of  patriot 
ism  and  of  enthusiasm  through  the  hearts  of  the  in 
digenous  people.  Soon  after  the  royal  family  of  the 
Chichimecs  was  established  on  the  throne  of  Acol- 
huacan.  The  monarchy  of  Tacuba  was  established. 
Then  came  the  triple  alliance  of  these  two  with  the 
Mexican  nation  and  the  hero  of  Atzcapotzalco  was 
anointed  King  Moctezuma  I.  Ere  long  the  Tlate- 


176  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

lolcos  were  brought  into  subjection.  Moctezuma, 
pushing  his  victorious  army  on  to  the  south,  soon 
added  to  his  crown  the  States  of  Huaxtepec,  Juah- 
tepec,  Tepoztlan,  Jacapichtla,  Totolapan,  Tlalco- 
zanhtitlan,  Chicapan,  and  many  others.  Then  turn 
ing  westward  he  met  with  similar  success.  After 
nine  years  he  returned  "  with  the  spoils  of  many  na 
tions  "  to  adorn  the  enlarged  temple  of  Huitzilo- 
pochtli. 

In  1446  came  the  great  inundation,  followed  in 
1448  and  1449  by  the  terrible  famine.  But  in  both 
these  ordeals  Moctezuma  seemed  as  eminent  as  in 
times  of  war.  In  the  first  case  as  great  skill  was 
displayed  by  the  Mexicans  as  was  displayed  by  Eu 
ropean  engineers  in  a  similar  inundation  under 
Spanish  rule  two  hundred  years  later. 

Then  followed  the  conquest  of  the  Mixtecas,  and 
finally  Moctezuma's  army  reached  the  gulf  coast, 
victorious  over  everything,  including  the  populous 
Olmec  nation  and  only  excepting  that  brave  little 
Indian  republic  shut  in  by  the  mountains  of  Tlax- 
cala,  unconquered  even  to  the  days  of  the  Span 
iards.  Chalco,  Tlalmanalco,  and  Ameca  (in  which 
last  place  one  city  lies  buried  beneath  another)  were 
soon  embraced  in  the  Mexican  jurisdiction.  So  we 
find  Moctezuma's  empire  on  the  east  extending  to 
the  gulf;  on  the  southeast,  to  the  center  of  the  Mix- 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  177 

tec  country;  on  the  south,  beyond  Chilepan ;  on 
the  west,  to  the  valley  of  Toluca  ;  on  the  northwest, 
to  the  heart  of  the  Otomi  country  ;  and  on  the  north, 
to  the  limit  of  the  valley  of  Mexico.  According  to 
modern  geography  this  included  the  States  of  Mex 
ico,  Puebla,  Hidalgo,  Guerrero,  Vera  Cruz,  and 
western  Oaxaca,  with  parts  of  Tamaulipas,  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Queretaro,  and  Chiapas. 

It  seems  impossible  to  ascertain  the  exact  num 
ber  of  inhabitants  of  the  country  prior  to  the  con 
quest.  But  native  historians  all  claim  that  the 
country  was  much  more  thickly  inhabited  then  than 
now.  There  is  data,  however,  upon  which  to  base 
such  a  claim.  For  we  find  that  soon  after  the  death 
of  Moctezuma  I  the  following  provisions  were 
needed  annually  to  sustain  the  royal  Acolhuacan 
family  alone,  namely,  318,519!- tons  of  corn,  178,360 
tons  of  cocoanuts,  208  tons  of  red  peppers,  44!  tons 
small  peppers,  1,300  large  baskets  of  salt,  and  8,000 
turkeys.  Such  a  family  could  hardly  be  supported 
by  a  smaller  nation  than  the  Chichimecs,  for  whom 
were  claimed  three  and  a  half  millions.  Certainly, 
then,  we  are  not  far  out  of  the  way  in  claiming  ten 
millions  for  the  central  table-lands  and  as  many 
more  for  the  Western  and  Southern  States  and  for 
Yucatan,  where  the  Maya  civilization  was  then 
flourishing.  Eminent  Mexican  scholars  will  not 
13 


i/8  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

admit  of  less  than  twenty-five  million,  and  Hum- 
boldt  estimates  thirty  million.  To  the  shame  of 
Spain  be  it  said  that  the  population  of  Mexico  is 
less  than  half  that  number  now. 

The  second  Moctezuma,  nephew  of  the  first, 
began  his  reign  in  the  last  years  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  He  was  a  brave  g'eneral,  a  humble  priest, 
a  renowned  astronomer,  and  "  much  revered  for  his 
gravity,  his  circumspection,  and  his  religion.  He 
was  a  man  of  a  taciturn  temper,  extremely  deliber 
ate,  not  only  in  words,  but  also  in  his  actions ;  and 
whenever  he  spoke  in  the  royal  council,  of  which  he 
was  a  member,  he  was  listened  to  with  respect." 
When  the  news  of  his  election  from  among  a  large 
number  of  legal  candidates  was  published  the 
allied  kings  seemed  to  vie  with  each  other  in  doing 
him  honor.  Moctezuma  himself,  on  being  apprized 
of  it,  retired  at  once  to  the  temple,  and  in  order  to 
simulate  the  humility  with  which  he  received  the 
honor  of  his  election  set  to  work  sweeping  the  pave 
ment  of  the  temple.  From  this  humble  pastime  he 
was  conducted  by  a  numerous  attendance  to  the  pal 
ace  and  duly  notified,  with  prolific  flow  of  Aztec 
eloquence,  of  his  election,  in  which  election  the  offi 
cial  orator  saw  "  how  strong  is  the  love  which  the  om 
nipotent  God  bears  to  this  nation  "  in  giving  a  ruler 
of  "  no  less  fortitude  than  your  invincible  heart  pos- 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  179 

sesses  and  no  less  wisdom  than  that  which  in  you 
we  admire." 

The  newly  elected  king  was  moved  to  tears. 
Overcoming  his  emotion,  he  made  fitting  reply, 
listened  quietly  to  the  closing  ceremonies,  and  then 
retired  for  four  days  of  fasting  in  the  temple,  at  the 
end  of  which  he  was  reconducted  in  great  state  to 
the  royal  palace.  He  then  marched  against  the- 
Atlixchese,  at  that  time  rebels  against  the  crown, 
and  took  enough  prisoners  for  the  sacrifice  con 
nected  with  his  coronation.  "  On  this  occasion  was 
displayed  so  much  pomp  of  games,  dances,  theat 
rical  representations,  and  illuminations,  and  with 
such  variety  and  richness  of  tributes  sent  from  the 
different  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  that  foreigners 
never  known  before  in  Mexico  came  to  see  it,  and 
even  the  enemies  of  the  Mexicans,  namely,  the 
Tlaxcalans  and  the  Michicacanese,  were  present  in 
disguise  at  the  spectacle."* 

As  soon,  however,  as  Moctezuma  had  the  reins 
of  government  well  in  hand  he  began  to  develop 
great  taste  for  display.  Perhaps  nothing  will  give 
a  better  idea  of  the  strength  and  power  of  his  king 
dom  than  a  description  of  his  court.  No  one  could 
enter  the  palace  either  to  serve  or  confer  without 
leaving  his  sandals  at  the  door.  No  person  could 

*Clavigero,  vol.  i,  p.  279. 


i8o  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

appear  before  the  king  in  anything  like  pompous 
dress  ;  all  persons  on  entering  the  hall  of  audience, 
and  before  speaking  to  the  king,  made  three  bows, 
saying  at  the  first,  "  Tlatoani" — lord;  at  the  second, 
"  Notlatosatzin  " — my  lord;  and  at  the  third,  "  Hui- 
tlatoani" — great  lord.  They  spoke  low,  and  with 
bowed  heads  awaited  the  king's  reply  by  means  of 
his  secretary,  as  if  they  awaited  the  voice  of  an 
oracle.  On  retiring  the  back  was  never  turned  on 
the  throne. 

The  immense  audience  hall  served  also  for  a  ban 
queting  room.  "  The  table  was  a  large  pillow,  and 
his  seat  a  low  chair.  The  tablecloth,  napkins,  and 
towels  were  of  cotton,  but  very  fine,  white,  and  al 
ways  perfectly  clean.  The  kitchen  utensils  were  of 
the  earthenware  of  Cholula ;  but  none  of  these  things 
ever  served  him  but  once,  as  immediately  after  he 
gave  them  to  one  of  his  nobles.  The  cups  in  which 
they  prepared  his  chocolate  and  other  drinks  of  the 
cocoa  were  of  gold,  or  some  beautiful  seashell  or 
naturally  formed  vessels  curiously  varnished.  .  .  . 
He  had  gold  plate,  but  it  was  only  used  on  certain 
festivals  in  the  temple.  The  number  and  variety 
of  dishes  at  his  table  amazed  the  Spaniards  who 
saw  them.  The  conqueror  Cortez  says  that  they 
covered  the  floor  of  a  great  hall,  and  that  there 
were  dishes  of  every  kind  of  game,  fish,  fruit,  and 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  181 

herbs  of  the  country.  Three  or  four  hundred  noble 
youths  carried  this  dinner  in  form,  presented  it  as 
soon  as  the  king  sat  down  to  the  table,  and  imme 
diately  retired,  and  that  it  might  not  grow  cold  every 
dish  was  accompanied  with  its  chafing  dish.  The 
king  marked  with  a  rod,  which  he  had  in  his  hand, 
the  meats  which  he  chose,  and  the  rest  were  dis 
tributed  among  the  nobles  who  were  in  the  ante 
chamber.  Before  he  sat  down  four  of  the  most 
beautiful  women  of  his  seraglio  presented  water  to 
him  to  wash  his  hands,  and  continued  standing 
all  the  time  of  his  dinner,  together  with  six  of 
his  principal  ministers  and  his  carver.  As  soon  as 
the  king  sat  down  to  table  the  carver  shut  the  door 
of  the  hall,  that  none  of  the  other  nobles  might  see 
him  eat.  The  ministers  stood  at  a  distance  and 
kept  a  profound  silence,  unless  when  they  made  an 
swer  to  what  the  king  said.  The  carver  and  the 
four  women  served  the  dishes  to  him,  besides  two 
others  who  brought  him  bread  made  of  maize  baked 
with  eggs.  He  frequently  heard  music  during  the 
time  of  his  meal,  and  was  entertained  with  the  hu 
morous  sayings  of  some  deformed  men  whom  he 
kept  out  of  mere  state.  He  showed  much  satisfac 
tion  in  hearing  them,  and  observed  that  among 
their  jests  they  frequently  pronounced  some  impor 
tant  truth.  When  his  dinner  was  over  he  took  to- 


1 82  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

bacco  mixed  with  liquid  amber,  in  a  pipe  or  reed 
beautifully  varnished,  and  with  the  smoke  of  it  put 
himself  to  sleep.  After  having  slept  a  little  upon 
the  same  low  chair  he  gave  audience  and  listened 
attentively  to  all  that  was  communicated  to  him, 
encouraged  those  who,  from  embarrassment,  were 
unable  to  speak  to  him,  and  answered  everyone  by 
his  ministers  or  secretaries.  After  giving  audience 
he  was  entertained  with  music,  being  much  de 
lighted  with  hearing  the  glorious  actions  of  his  an 
cestors  sung.  At  other  times  he  amused  himself 
with  seeing  various  games  played.  .  .  .  When  he 
went  abroad  he  was  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
nobles  in  a  l-itter  covered  with  a  rich  canopy,  at 
tended  by  a  numerous  retinue  of  courtiers,  and 
wherever  he  passed  all  people  stopped  with  their 
eyes  shut,  as  if  they  feared  to  be  dazzled  with  the 
splendor  of  majesty.  When  he  alighted  from  the 
litter  to  walk  they  spread  carpets,  that  he  might 
not  touch  the  earth  with  his  feet. 

"  The  grandeur  and  magnificence  of  his  palaces, 
houses  of  pleasure,  woods,  and  gardens  were  corre 
spondent  to  this  majesty.  The  palace  of  his  usual 
residence  was  a  vast  edifice  of  stone  and  lime  which 
had  twenty  doors  to  the  public  square  and  streets, 
three  great  courts,  in  one  of  which  was  a  beautiful 
fountain,  several  halls,  and  more  than  a  hundred 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  183 

chambers.  Some  of  the  apartments  had  walls  of 
marble  and  other  valuable  kinds  of  stone.  The 
beams  were  of  cedar,  cypress,  and  other  excellent 
woods,  well  finished  and  carved.  Among  the  halls 
there  was  one  so  large  that,  according  to  the  testi 
mony  of  an  eyewitness  of  veracity,  it  could  contain 
three  thousand  people.  Besides  this  palace  he  had 
others,  both  within  and  without  the  capital.  In 
Mexico,  besides  the  seraglio  for  his  wives,  there 
was  lodging  for  all  his  ministers  and  counselors  and 
all  the  officers  of  his  household  and  court  ;  and  also 
accommodation  for  foreign  lords  who  arrived  there, 
and  particularly  for  the  two  allied  kings. 

"  Two  houses  in  Mexico  he  appropriated  to  ani 
mals  :  the  one  for  birds  which  did  not  live  by  prey ; 
the  other  for  birds  of  prey,  quadrupeds,  and  reptiles. 
There  were  several  chambers  belonging  to  the  first 
and  galleries  supported  on  pillars  of  marble,  all  of 
one  piece.  These  galleries  looked  toward  a  garden, 
where,  in  the  midst  of  some  shrubbery,  ten  fish 
ponds  were  formed,  some  of  them  of  fresh  water,  for 
the  aquatic  birds  of  rivers,  and  others  of  salt  water 
for  those  of  the  sea.  In  other  parts  of  the  house 
were  all  sorts  of  birds,  in  such  number  and  variety 
as  to  strike  the  Spaniards  with  wonder,  who  could 
not  believe  there  was  any  species  in  the  world  want 
ing  to  the  collection.  They  were  supplied  with  the 


1 84  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

same  food  which  they  fed  upon  while  they  enjoyed 
their  liberty,  whether  seeds,  fruits,  or  insects.  For 
those  birds  which  lived  on  fish  only,  the  daily  con 
sumption  was  ten  Castilian  pesos  of  fish,  which  is 
more  than  three  hundred  Roman  pounds.  Three 
hundred  men,  says  Cortez,  were  employed  to  take 
care  of  those  birds,  besides  their  physicians,  who 
observed  their  distempers  and  applied  timely  reme 
dies  to  them.  Of  these  three  hundred  men  some 
procured  them  their  food,  others  distributed  it, 
others  took  care  of  their  eggs  at  the  time  of  their 
incubation,  and  others  picked  their  plumage  at  cer 
tain  seasons  of  the  year ;  for,  besides  the  pleasure 
which  the  king  took  in  seeing  so  great  a  multitude 
of  animals  collected  together,  he  was  principally 
careful  of  their  feathers,  not  less  for  the  sake  of 
the  famous  mosaic  images,  .  .  .  than  of  the  works 
which  were  made  of  them.  The  halls  and  cham 
bers  of  those  houses  were  so  many  in  number,  as 
the  conqueror  above  mentioned  attests,  that  they 
could  have  accommodated  two  great  princes  with 
all  their  retinue.  This  celebrated  house  was  situ 
ated  in  the  place  where  at  present  the  great  Con 
vent  of  St.  Francis  stands."  * 

This  description  might  be  continued  at  consider 
able  length,  but  we  pause  here  to  remark  that,  in 

*  Clavigero,  vol.  i,  p.  282. 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  185 

the  wonderful  providence  of  God,  on  the  very  spot 
where  stood  this  marvelous  and  extensive  pleasure 
palace,  and  where  later  the  Franciscan  monks 
erected  the  magnificent  convent  which  served  them 
for  over  three  hundred  years,  on  this  very  spot,  we 
repeat,  to-day  stands  the  handsome  headquarters  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  land  of 
Moctezuma. 

Just  outside  the  city  the  emperor  had  magnif 
icent  gardens,  such  as  Chapultepec,  Pefion,  and 
other  places,  kept  in  exquisite  order  and  neatness. 
In  these,  as  well  as  in  his  palaces,  gorgeous  baths 
abounded,  which  were  his  daily  delight.  Four  regal 
robes  were  donned  every  day  and  never  used  a 
second  time,  but  handed  down  to  the  nobles  or  gal 
lant  soldiers  who  had  distinguished  themselves  in 
battle.  Goldsmiths,  workers  in  mosaic  sculptors, 
painters,  and  numerous  other  artists  and  artisans 
were  kept  constantly  employed  under  his  direction. 
He  was  attentive  to  the  execution  of  law  and  order 
and  an  implacable  enemy  to  idleness.  Though 
arrogant  and  proud  and  excessively  severe  in  pun 
ishment,  he  constantly  did  many  things  to  gain  the 
love  of  his  subjects.  Among  his  more  noble  public 
works  was  the  perfect  equipment  of  Colhuacan  as  a 
grand  asylum  for  the  aged  and  infirm  whose  every 
want  was  supplied  from  the  royal  exchequer.  Nor 


1 86  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

was  his  zeal  for  religion  less  conspicuous  than  his 
other  traits.  He  built  several  temples  and  was 
greatly  devoted  to  their  ceremonies,  but  at  the  same 
time  his  mind  was  perpetually  enslaved  by  the  fear 
of  the  auguries  and  pretended  oracles  of  false  divin 
ities.  Indeed,  nearly  every  public  event  during 
the  last  days  of  Moctezuma  was  clothed  with  a  mys 
terious  significance,  "  every  unusual  phenomenon  of 
nature,  every  accident,  every  illness,  every  defeat 
in  battle,  failure  of  crops,  excessive  heat  or  cold, 
rain  or  snow,  thunder  and  lightning,  shooting  star  or 
comet,  earthquake  or  eclipse,  each  and  all  portended 
evil  to  the  Atzec  empire — evil  which  some  seem 
even  at  this  time  to  have  connected  with  the  olden 
predictions  of  Quetzalcoatl  respecting  the  coming 
of  a  foreign  race  to  take  possession  of  the  country." 
Monarch,  nobles,  and  priests  seem  to  have  been 
kept  in  a  constant  state  of  alarm.  Part  of  this  con 
dition  of  things,  as  described  by  historians,  is, 
doubtless,  due  to  the  superstitious  minds  of  the 
people,  and  in  part  is  the  result  of  the  inventive 
imagination  of  native  historians,  colored,  perhaps, 
in  after  years,  by  the  first  Catholic  fathers  who  vis 
ited  Mexico. 

It  is  also  believed  by  some  that  rumors  had 
reached  the  ears  of  Moctezuma  and  his  com 
panions  of  the  presence  of  Europeans  on  the 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  187 

American  coasts.  The  Spaniards  were  already  in 
the  Antilles,  and  Columbus  had  coasted  Central 
America.  Some  knowledge  of  these  facts  had 
doubtless  been  carried  by  Aztec  traders  from  the 
gulf  to  the  table-lands. 

Among  the  mysterious  omens  recorded  by  his 
torians,  in  all  sobriety,  were  a  great  comet  with 
three  heads  which  appeared  about  1515,  and  "a 
wonderful  pyramidal  light"  in  the  east,  visible  for 
forty  days,  similar  to  the  aurora  borealis.  The 
King  of  Tezcoco  was  awed  and  subdued,  but  Moc- 
tezuma  was  so  defiant  and  angry  that  Father 
Duran  says  he  "  strangled  many  of  his  sorcerers  for 
their  unfavorable  interpretation  of  the  signs  and 
their  failure  to  avert  evil  omens." 

Soon  after  it  is  recorded  that  the  "  towers  of 
Huitzilopochtli's  temple  took  fire  in  a  clear  night 
without  apparent  cause  and  were  reduced  to  ashes." 
And  another  temple  was  struck  by  lightning.  Tor- 
quemada,  Clavigero,  and  Betancourt  all  declare  that 
Moctezuma's  sister,  Papantzin,who  had  been  spirited 
away,  was  believed  by  all  to  have  risen  from  the 
dead  and  appeared  to  her  royal  brother  with  the 
story  of  a  new  and  powerful  people  who  were  to 
possess  the  land  and  bring  with  them  a  new  religion. 
The  matter  of  religion  was  probably  added  by  the 
"  ever  truthful  "  Church  writers.  However,  it  is 


1 88  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

claimed  that  she  survived  the  arrival  of  the  Span 
iards,  and  Clavigero  says  :  "  She  was  the  first  who 
in  1524  received  the  sacred  baptism  in  Tlaltelolco, 
and  was  called  from  that  time  Dofia  Maria  Papan- 
tzin."* 

On  the  north  side  of  the  present  city  of  Mexico, 
and  about  half  a  mile  from  our  Mission  quarters, 
stands  a  chaplet  which  marks  the  spot  where  the 
princess  is  said  to  have  been  baptized. 

Time  and  space  beyond  our  control  would  be 
needed  to  give  anything  like  an  adequate  account 
of  the  other  nations  and  tribes  outside  the  central 
plateau  of  Mexico.  But  these  were  so  related, 
before  and  after  the  conquest*with  affairs  centering 
in  Anahuac,  that  we  deem  the  following  picture, 
drawn  by  Mr.  Bancroft,  of  things  as  they  appeared 
in  1519,  to  be  of  interest  and  to  show  the  most  ex 
traordinary  combination  of  circumstances  that  made 
it  possible  for  a  small  invading  army  to  overthrow 
an  immense  aboriginal  empire,  and  hence  we  repro 
duce  it: 

"  The  power  known  as  Aztec,  since  the  formation 
of  the  tripartite  alliance  not  quite  a  century  before 
under  the  Acolhua,  Mexican,  and  Tepanec  kings, 
had  gradually  extended  its  iron  grasp  from  its 
center  about  the  lakes  to  the  shores  of  either  ocean  ; 

*  Clavigero,  vol.  i,  p.  369. 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  189 

and  this  it  had  accomplished  wholly  by  the  force  of 
arms,  receiving  no  voluntary  allegiance. 

"  Overburdened  by  taxation,  oppressed  and  in 
sulted  by  royal  governors,  Aztec  tribute  gatherers, 
and  the  traveling  armies  of  Tlatelulca  merchants, 
constantly  attacked  on  frivolous  pretexts  by  blood 
thirsty  hordes  who  ravaged  their  fields  and  carried 
away  the  flower  of  their  population  to  perish  on 
the  Mexican  altars,  the  inhabitants  of  each  province 
subjected  to  this  degrading  bondage  entertained 
toward  the  central  government  of  the  tyrants  on 
the  lakes  feelings  of  the  bitterest  hatred  and  hostil 
ity,  only  awaiting  an  opportunity  to  free  them 
selves,  at  least  to  annihilate  their  oppressors.  Such 
was  the  condition  of  affairs  and  the  state  of  feeling 
abroad  ;  at  home  the  situation  was  more  critical. 
The  alliance  which  had  been  the  strongest  element 
of  the  Aztec  power  was  now  practically  broken  up ; 
the  ambitious  schemes  of  Moctezuma  had  alienated 
his  firmest  ally,  and  the  stronger  part  of  the  Acol- 
hua  force  was  openly  arrayed  against  him  under 
Ixtlilxochitl  at  Otompan,  leagued  with  the  Tlascal- 
tec  leaders  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Mexican  power. 
It  is  probable  that  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  re 
tarded  rather  than  precipitated  the  united  attack  of 
the  Acolhuas  and  the  outside  provinces  on  Mocte 
zuma.  But  again,  to  meet  the  gathering  storm, 


190  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  Mexican  king  could  no  longer  count  on  the 
undivided  support  of  his  own  people ;  he  had 
alienated  the  merchants,  who  no  longer,  as  in 
the  early  days,  did  faithful  duty  as  spies,  nor 
toiled  to  enrich  a  government  from  which  they 
could  expect  no  rewards ;  the  lower  classes  no 
longer  deemed  their  own  interests  identical  with 
those  of  their  sovereign.  Last,  but  far  from  least 
among  the  elements  of  approaching  ruin,  was  the 
religious  sentiment  of  the  country.  The  reader  has 
followed  the  bitter  contentions  of  earlier  times  in 
Tollan  and  Culhuacan,  between  the  rival  sects  of 
Quetzalcoatl  and  Tezcatlipoca.  With  the  growth 
of  the  Mexican  influence  the  bloody  rites  of  the  lat 
ter  sect  had  prevailed  under  the  auspices  of  the  god 
Huitzilopochtli,  and  the  worship  of  the  gentler 
Quetzalcoatl,  though  still  observed  in  many 
provinces  and  many  temples,  had,  with  its  priests, 
been  forced  to  occupy  a  secondary  position.  But 
the  people  were  filled  with  terror  at  the  horrible 
extent  to  which  the  latter  kings  had  carried  the 
immolation  of  human  victims ;  they  were  sick  of 
blood  and  of  the  divinities  that  thirsted  for  it  ;  a 
reaction  was  experienced  in  favor  of  the  rival  deities 
and  priesthood. 

"And    now,  just  as    the  oppressed   subjects    of 
priestly  tyranny  were   learning  to   remember  with 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  191 

regret  the  peaceful  teachings  of  the  Plumed  Serpent, 
and  to  look  to  that  god  for  relief  from  their  woes, 
their  prayers  were  answered,  Quetzalcoatl's  predic 
tions  were  apparently  fulfilled,  and  his  promised 
children  made  their  appearance  on  the  eastern 
ocean.  The  arrival  of  Cortez  at  this  particular 
juncture  was,  in  one  sense,  most  marvelous  ;  but  in 
his  subsequent  success  there  is  little  to  be  won 
dered  at ;  nor  is  it  strange  that  the  oppressed 
Nahuas  received  almost  with  outstretched  arms  the 
ministers  of  the  new  faith  thus  offered  them  by  the 
Spaniards." 

Not  only  the  people  but  the  country,  with  its 
wonderful  resources,  had  drawn  attention,  for  it  was 
a  land  with  varied  climates,  producing  between  the 
hot  coast  lands  and  the  frigid  zone,  nestling  just  be 
neath  the  perpetual  snow  lines  of  mountains  rising 
above  theclouds,  nearly  every  known  fruit  and  cereal. 

From  the  time  of  the  conquest  down  to  1880 
official  records  show  that  Mexican  gold  mines  pro 
duced  $120,000,000,  and  the  silver  mines,  $2,999,- 
000,000  making  a  total  of  $3,111,000,000  worth  of 
these  two  precious  metals.  But  if  to  this  we  could 
add  what  was  smuggled  out  of  the  country,  and 
then  the  iron,  the  copper,  lead,  and* amber  output, 
the  opals,  onyx,  and  other  valuable  stones,  rich  dye 

*  Bancroft,  vol.  v,  pp.  481,  482. 


192  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

and  cabinet  woods,  and  many  other  products,  we 
would  get  some  idea  of  the  worth  of  the  prize  for 
for  which  Spain  was  striving.  It  must  have  been 
this  anticipation  which  led  Cortez,  on  landing  for 
the  first  time  on  this  western  world,  to  say  to  the 
Governor  of  Cuba,  who  offered  him  an  emigrant's 
portion  of  land,  "  I  came  to  get  gold,  not  to  till  the 
soil  like  a  peasant."  This  golden  inspiration,  too, 
manifested  itself  again  and  again,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  repeated  protests  of  a  few  of  the  better  Spanish 
friars  like  Las  Casas,  the  worthy  Bishop  of  Chiapas, 
survived  in  the  great  majority  of  the  conquerors. 
The  pulse  of  European  life  beat  very  high  in  those 
days.  Its  feverish  character  contributed  to  multi 
ply  adventurers  by  the  score  and  hundreds.  Indeed, 
the  condition  of  things  on  the  continent  in  the 
early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  responsible 
for  the  conquest.  In  order  to  refresh  our  minds, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  give  an  idea  of  the  way 
Mexican  authors  look  back  upon  the  scene,  let  us 
quote  from  General  Vicente  Riva  Palacio,  at  present 
Mexico's  worthy  ambassador  to  Spain.  In  the  in 
troduction  to  his  portion  of  Mexico  Through  the 
Ages  *  he  speaks  as  follows  of  those  times  in  Europe : 
"  It  was  trU  age  of  combat  of  all  against  all. 
Religious,  political,  social,  literary,  and  scientific 
*  Yol.  ii,  p.  3. 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  193 

struggles  ;  discoveries  and  conquests  of  unknown 
lands  ;  reforms  in  customs,  in  legislation,  in  religion, 
in  philosophy — all,  all  were  attracted  and  attempted 
by  that  age  which,  by  means  of  a  convulsive  and 
sanguinary  evolution,  prepared  the  geography  of 
the  world  and  the  conditions  of  minds  to  receive 
the  seeds  of  a  modern  civilization. 

"  War  covered  the  face  of  the  old  continent. 
Spain  and  France  bathed  in  blood  the  plains  of 
Pavia,  where  death,  in  the  embrace  of  two  conflict 
ing  armies,  harvested  the  flower  of  the  nobility 
that  clustered  about  Francis  I,  armies  impelled 
by  the  jealousies  of  two  haughty  and  ambitious 
sovereigns,  rather  than  by  the  love  of  country. 

"  Italy,  the  standard-bearer  of  civilization  in 
Europe — Italy,  with  its  poets  and  its  politicians,  its 
artists  and  its  philosophers,  shuddered  sore  and 
stricken  under  the  severest  revolutions  that  had 
clouded  its  history.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  the  Repub 
lican  school  arose  in  Venice,  led  by  Durantino, 
Cantarini,  and  Garinberti,  and  minds  tossed  to  and 
fro  and  consciences  were  stirred.  Then  the  states 
men  and  the  warriors  of  Italy  deployed  their  rhet 
oric  and  their  arms,  alike  active  on  both  sides ; 
cities  were  captured  by  assault  or  by  surprises,  while 
foreign  armies,  with  warlike  movements,  entered 

and  left  that  classic  land  of  art  and  history. 
14 


194  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

"  The  struggle  between  the  common  classes  and 
the  troops  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V  shook 
the  new  and  virile  monarchy  born  of  the  happy 
union  of  the  knightly  Ferdinand  and  the  noble  and 
poetic  '  Isabel  the  Catholic.'  .  .  .  Noblemen  wan 
dered  in  terror  through  insurgent  cities,  while 
bishops  sought  refuge  in  the  hospitals,  as  their 
palaces  disappeared  in  smoke. 

"  The  city  of  the  Caesars  was  taken  by  assault. 
The  soldiery  of  the  Constable  of  Bourbon,  like  the 
Godos  of  Alaric,  entered  to  plunder,  and  the  pope 
became  the  prisoner  of  Charles  V,  who  at  the  same 
time  ordered  that  prayer  be  made  throughout  all 
Christendom  for  the  fate  of  the  chief  of  the  Catho 
lic  Church. 

"  The  first  sparks  flew  from  the  flames  of  religious 
war  about  to  desolate  Europe.  In  the  name  of  the 
liberty  of  the  human  conscience,  and  in  defiance 
of  the  successors  of  St.  Peter,  Luther  fastened  to 
the  doors  of  the  Wittenberg  Cathedral  his  famous 
protest  as  a  challenge,  and  from  the  Diet  of  Worms 
and  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  rose  the  great  edi 
fice  of  religious  reformation.  Under  the  heat  of 
that  Reformation  the  Company  of  Jesus  was  born 
in  the  Catholic  camp,  and  Henry  VIII  in  England 
sealed  with  the  blood  of  martyrs  the  birth  of  the  An 
glican  Church,  followed  by  the  stakes  fired  in  the 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  195 

Netherlands  by  the  Duke  of  Alba  and  the  frightful 
massacre  of  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

"  Zwingle  overturned  Switzerland,  Cranmer  revo 
lutionized  England,  while  Knox  in  Scotland,  Calvin 
in  France,  and  Gustav  Wasa  in  Sweden  changed  the 
order  of  things. 

"  From  the  fierce  light  that  beat  from  that  uni 
versal  conflagration  the  sciences  and  the  arts  rescued 
giants  who  well  could  have  baptized  the  age  with 
their  glorious  names,  had  it  not  been  the  age  of 
Charles  V  and  Philip  II,  Luther  and  St.  Igna 
tius  de  Loyola,  Cortez  and  Don  Juan  of  Austria — 
had  the  age  not  given  birth  to  the  conquest  of 
America  and  to  religious  wars.  However,  therefrom 
irradiate  the  luminous  faces  of  Raphael  and  Michael 
Angelo,  Ariosto  and  Ulrich,  Copernicus  and  Eras 
mus,  Cardano  and  Tartaglia,  Macchiavelli  and 
Rabelais,  Camden,  Tasso  and  Cervantes,  Shakes 
peare  and  Ercilla,  Galileo,  Kepler,  and  Bacon. 

"  Across  that  age  of  revolution,  across  that  his 
toric  period,  carrying  upon  his  shoulders  the  terri 
ble  weight  of  two  worlds,  swept  the  son  of  Crazy 
Jane,  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  probably  the  most 
powerful  monarch  that  ever  ruled  in  this  world. 
Struggling  with  difficulties,  which  seemed  insur 
mountable,  in  order  to  clasp  the  crown  of  Castile 
and  Aragon,  that  young  monarch,  who  reached 


196  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Spain  almost  a  pretender,  in  a  few  years  filled  with 
his  name  a  whole  age  and  two  worlds,  introducing 
a  great  political  revolution  on  earth  ;  and  under  the 
sweeping  shadow  of  his  banners  and  among  the  tur 
moil  of  arms  planting  the  germs  of  great  nationali 
ties  which  should  in  future  divide  up  the  world. 

"  The  standards  of  the  emperor  floated  trium 
phantly  in  Europe  and  in  Asia,  in  Africa  and  in 
America.  Before  him  bent  obsequient  alike  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Antilles  and  the  haughty  Span 
ish  magnates,  the  keen  Italian  princes  and  the 
superb  German  lords.  Among  the  captives  were 
the  Roman  Pontiff,  the  King  of  France  and  the  King 
of  Navarre,  the  emperors  of  Mexico  and  of  Peru, 
Muley-Azen,  King  of  Tunis,  and  many  of  the  New 
World  sovereigns.  The  fate  of  the  nations  of  both 
continents  hung  upon  his  decision,  for  one  word 
from  him  sufficed  to  draw  the  swords  of  his  great 
captains.  When,  wearied  of  glory  and  of  struggle, 
of  triumph  and  of  disenchantment,  he  sought  in  the 
retirement  of  a  cloistered  cell  a  peace  impossible  to 
woo,  he  left  upon  the  throne  of  Spain,  like  the 
haunting  specter  of  his  past  glory  and  genius,  the 
somber  Philip  II,  upon  whose  domain  the  sun 
could  not  set,  and  who  by  artful  and  mysterious  di 
plomacy  sought  to  strengthen  the  conquests  of  his 
father,  while  on  the  fields  of  battle  the  descendants 


THE  MOCTEZUMAS.  197 

of  the  Prophet  of  Mecca  had  torn  from  them  even 
the  hope  of  resumption  of  influence  in  Europe,  while 
this  monarch  calmed  the  fears  of  terrorized  Chris 
tianity,  which  had  seen  the  crescent  creep  up  over  the 
city  walls  of  Constantinople,  that  city  consecrated 
by  the  sublime  death  of  the  last  Constantine. 

"  In  that  great  age,  the  age  of  stupendous 
achievements,  the  kings  of  Spain  acquired  by  right 
of  conquest,  consecrated  by  Alexander  VI,  the  rich 
and  fertile  dominions  which  in  the  world  of  Colum 
bus  received,  by  the  will  and  word  of  Hernan  Cor- 
tez,  the  name  of  New  Spain." 

*  The  lecturer  exhibited  one  of  the  first  copies,  in  Latin,  of  the 
Bull  of  Alexander  VI,  by  which  he  divided  the  western  hemisphere 
between  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese.  It  is  dated  May  3,  1492. 


LECTURE  VI. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS. 


LECTURE   VI. 
THE  ARRIVAL   OF   THE   SPANIARDS. 

HERNAN  CORTEZ  is  regarded  as  the  central 
figure  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  True,  other 
Spaniards  had  preceded  him  in  the  discovery  of 
Mexico,  but  they  had  only  coasted  the  gulf  and 
never  penetrated  inland  to  any  great  distance. 
This  real  conqueror  was  born  at  Medellin,  in  the 
Province  of  Estremadura,  Spain,  in  1483 — though 
Pizarro  y  Orellana,  a  zealous  historian  of  the 
Church,  publishes  the  remarkable  coincidence  "  that 
Cortez  came  into  the  world  the  same  day  that  that 
infernal  beast,  the  false  heretic,  Luther,  entered  it." 
Mendieta  says  :  "  The  same  year  that  Luther  was 
born  in  Eisleben,  Hernan  Cortez  was  born  in  Me 
dellin,  the  first  to  disturb  the  world  and  put  under  the 
devil's  banner  many  faithful  ones  whose  fathers  and 
grandfathers  Tor  long  years  were  Catholics,  and  the 
second  to  bring  into  the  pale  of  the  Church  infinite 
multitudes  who  for  numberless  years  had  been  under 
the  power  of  Satan  wrapped  up  in  vice  and  blind  with 
idolatry."  This  would  fix  his  birth  in  1483,  two  years 
earlier  than  the  more  reliable  historians  give  it. 


202  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Gomera,  in  his  History  of  Mexico,  page  4,  tells 
us  that  Hernan  was  a  sickly  child,  and  would  proba 
bly  have  died  had  not  his  faithful  nurse,  Maria  de 
Estevan,  secured  the  special  protection  of  St. 
Peter  in  his  behalf.  It  seems  that,  characteristic  of 
the  times,  she  drew  lots  from  among  the  twelve 
apostles.  The  choice  falling  upon  St.  Peter  she 
made  him  the  patron  saint  of  the  youthful  invalid, 
to  whom  she  then  offered  special  "  masses  and 
prayers,  by  which  it  pleased  God  to  heal  him." 

Cortez's  parents  designed  that  he  should  study 
law,  and  for  this  purpose  he  went  to  Salamanca,  a 
Spanish  university  of  great  renown.  But  student 
life  did  not  fill  the  requirements  of  his  restless  spirit. 
After  two  years  he  returned  to  Medellin,  devoting 
himself  to  sports  and  martial  exercises.  He  became 
so  impetuous,  overbearing,  and  dissipated  that  his 
parents  gladly  consented  to  his  going  abroad  as  an 
adventurer.  His  first  inclination  was  to  go  to 
Italy.  But  an  illness  resultant  upon  dissipation 
kept  him  bedridden  till  after  the  sailing  of  an  ex 
pedition  in  which  he  had  enlisted.  His  thoughts 
next  turned  to  Hispaniola,  where  Ovando,  a  rela 
tive  of  his,  was  governor.  He  reached  Santo  Do 
mingo  in  1504,  a  youth  of  nineteen  summers.  The 
white  dove  spoken  of  by  Prescott  as  lighting  on 
the  topmast  of  his  vessel  just  prior  to  sighting  land, 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       203 

Pizarro  y  Orellana  says  was  the  Holy  Spirit,  which 
appeared  in  this  form  to  guide  an  expedition  "  which 
was  to  redound  so  much  to  the  spread  of  the  Cath 
olic  faith  and  the  Castilian  monarchy."* 

His  reception  by  the  governor  was  cordial,  and 
he  immediately  received  lucrative  employment,  but 
not  sufficient  to  satisfy  his  ambition.  Seven  years 
later  he  accompanied  Diego  Velasquez  to  Cuba, 
where  new  employments  and  land  grants  soon 
made  him  a  fortune.  Though  up  to  this  time  he 
had  occupied  comparatively  humble  positions  in 
government  service,  still  he  had,  as  Robertson  says, 
"  displayed  such  qualities  in  several  scenes  of  diffi 
culty  and  danger  as  raised  universal  expectation, 
and  turned  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen  toward  him 
as  one  capable  of  performing  great  things.  The 
turbulence  of  youth,  as  soon  as  he  found  objects 
and  occupations  suited  to  the  ardor  of  his  mind, 
gradually  subsided,  and  settled  into  a  habit  of  regu 
lar  indefatigable  activity.  The  impetuosity  of  his 
temper,  when  he  came  to  act  with  his  equals,  insen 
sibly  abated,  by  being  kept  under  restraint,  and 
mellowed  into  a  cordial,  soldierly  frankness.  These 
qualities  were  accompanied  with  calm  prudence  in 
concerting  his  schemes,  with  persevering  vigor  in 
executing  them,  and  with,  what  is  peculiar  to  su- 

*  Varones  Ilustres^  p.  70. 


204  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

perior  genius,  the  art  of  gaining  the  confidence  and 
governing  the  minds  of  men  ;  to  all  which  were 
added  the  inferior  accomplishments  that  strike  the 
vulgar  and  command  their  respect ;  a  graceful  per 
son,  a  winning  aspect,  extraordinary  address  in  mar 
tial  exercises,  and  a  constitution  of  such  vigor  as  to 
be  capable  of  enduring  any  fatigue." ' 

However,  the  young  hero  of  the  Spanish  con 
quest  had  his  weaknesses,  and  his  career  from  that 
time  to  the  final  departure  for  Mexico  was  very 
checkered.  A  succession  of  difficulties  with  the 
lieutenant  governor  of  Cuba  resulted  in  his  impris 
onment,  his  escape,  his  second  imprisonment,  and 
his  second  escape.  Finally,  he  effected  a  complete 
and  permanent  reconciliation,  making  a  thrilling 
tale  for  both  Prescott  and  Bancroft. 

Cordova  and  Grijalva  anticipated  Cortez  in  reach 
ing  the  Mexican  shores,  and  though  inferior  in  talents 
and  fame  to  him,  they  were  his  superiors  in  honesty. 
Whether  Velasquez  knew  this  or  not,  as  he  in 
structed  Cortez  "  to  observe  a  conduct  befitting  a 
Christian  soldier,"  is  not  stated.  But  subsequent 
events  prove  how  lightly  his  instructions  rested  on 
his  heart  and  conscience,  while  his  love  of  gold 
never  left  him. 

Cortez  was  also  instructed  to  prohibit  blasphemy, 

*  Robertson's  America,  p.  198. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       205 

licentiousness,  and  gambling  among  his  men,  and  on 
no  account  to  molest  the  natives,  "  but  gently  to 
inform  them  of  the  glory  of  God  and  of  the  Catholic 
king.*  But  Mohammed  himself  was  not  more  cruel 
and  relentless  with  his  interlaced  Koran  and  scim- 
iter  than  was  Cortez  with  the  cross  of  Christ  and 
sword  of  Toledo.  A  black  banner  of  velvet,  em 
broidered  with  the  royal  arms  of  Spain  in  gold,  with 
blue  and  white  flames  surrounding  a  red  cross,  was 
made  for  the  expedition,  and  upon  it  was  inscribed 
the  following:  "  Amici  sequamur  crucem,  si  nos  ha- 
buerimus  fidem  in  hoc  signo  vincemus" — "Friends, 
let  us  follow  the  cross,  and  under  this  sign,  if  we  have 
faith,  we  shall  conquer."  f  How  different  a  transla 
tion  did  the  great  Constantine  give  to  the  heavenly 
vision,  "  In  hoc  signo  vinccs,"  and  yet  the  oppor 
tunity  was  far  greater  for  Cortez  than  for  the  first 
Christian  emperor  of  Rome.  Passing  muster  it 
was  found  that  the  expedition  to  Mexico  contained 
15  vessels,  1 10  mariners,  553  soldiers,  200  Indians 
from  the  island,  several  servant  women,  and  16 
horses. 

Cortez  addressed  his  men  in  the  following  theat 
rical  fashion  :  "  I  hold  out  to  you  a  glorious  prize, 
but  it  is  to  be  won  by  incessant  toil.  Great  things 

*  Bancroft's  Works,  vol.  ix,  p.  54. 
f  Prescott,  vol.  i,  p.   118. 


206  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

are  achieved  only  by  great  exertions,  and  glory 
was  never  the  reward  of  sloth.  If  I  have  labored 
hard  and  staked  my  all  in  this  undertaking,  it  is  for 
the  love  of  that  renown  which  is  the  noblest  recom 
pense  of  man.  But  if  any  among  you  covet  riches 
more,  be  true  to  me,  and  I  will  be  true  to  you  and 
to  the  occasion,  and  I  will  make  you  masters  of 
such  as  our  countrymen  have  never  dreamed  of. 
You  are  few  in  number  but  strong  in  resolution  ; 
and,  if  this  does  not  falter,  doubt  not  but  that  the 
Almighty,  who  has  never  deserted  the  Spaniard  in 
his  contest  with  the  unbeliever,  will  shield  you, 
though  encompassed  by  a  cloud  of  enemies ;  for 
your  cause  is  a  just  cause,  and  you  are  to  fight 
under  the  banner  of  the  cross.  Go  forward,  then, 
with  alacrity  and  confidence,  and  carry  to  a  glorious 
issue  the  work  so  auspiciously  begun."  *  Mass  was 
said,  the  fleet  was  placed  under  the  protection  of 
St.  Peter,  the  patron  saint  of  Cortez,  and  they  set 
sail  on  the  i6th  of  February,  1519,  to  conquer  an 
unknown  people,  and  in  doing  so  to  write  some  of 
the  bloodiest  pages  ever  written  in  human  history. 
At  the  very  outset  of  the  conquest  we  find  our 
selves  embarrassed  by  the  greatly  exaggerated  chron 
icles  of  Spanish  historians.  For  instance,  after  a 
short  stop  at  the  island  of  Cozumel,  Cortez  coasted 

*  Prescott,  vol.  i,  p.  20. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       207 

along  the  shore  of  Yucatan  and  crossed  the  arm  of 
the  gulf  until  he  entered  the  Tabasco  River.  There 
he  landed  on  a  little  island  called  Punta  de  los 
Palmares.  The  natives  resented  their  landing  and 
a  battle  ensued.  When  we  remember  that  Cortez 
only  had  a  few  hundred  men  in  this  expedition,  it 
certainly  seems  strange  to  see  Bernal  Diaz  claim 
that  eight  hundred  Indians  were  killed  in  the  first 
engagement,  while  Torquemada  claims  that  one 
thousand  fell.  Cortez  in  his  official  dispatches  says 
that  forty  thousand  natives  were  drawn  up  in  battle, 
and  Bishop  Las  Casas  gives  thirty  thousand  souls 
as  the  modest  number  "  cruelly  slaughtered,"  and 
all  this  in  a  few  hours  by  about  five  hundred 
Spaniards  fighting  under  the  disadvantages  of  a 
difficult  landing  and  excessive  tropical  heat.  This 
same  spirit  of  exaggeration  runs  through  the  entire 
story  of  the  conquest  as  written  by  the  Spaniards. 
Unfortunately  it  has  often  misled  our  own  flowery 
and  enchanting  Prescott. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  Cortez  manifested  one  of 
those  memorable  traits  which  so  frequently  charac 
terized  him  in  his  relations  to  the  people  whom  he 
had  professedly  come  to  Christianize.  After  the 
battle  the  bewildered  natives  sued  for  peace,  and 
their  overtures  were  accompanied  by  a  propitiatory 
offering.  To  the  first  ambassadors  Cortez  answered 


2o8  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

with  the  following  haughty  reprimand  :  "  Tell  your 
master  if  he  desires  peace  he  must  sue  for  it,  and 
not  send  slaves."  Next  came  an  embassy  of  forty 
chiefs  richly  clad  and  walking  in  stately  procession, 
followed  by  a  file  of  slaves  bearing  presents.  Bow 
ing  low  "  before  the  bearded  assembly,  and  swinging 
before  them  the  censer  in  token  of  reverence,  the 
ambassador  implored  pardon  and  proffered  submis 
sion.  *  The  blame  is  all  your  own,'  said  Cortez, 
with  severity.  The  Indians  acquiesced,  though  it 
puzzled  them  to  know  why  they  were  to  blame. 
Cortez  informed  them  that  the  great  king,  his  mas 
ter,  had  sent  him  to  scatter  blessings,  if  they  were 
found  deserving  ;  if  not,  to  let  loose  upon  them  the 
caged  lightning  and  the  thunder  which  they  carried. 
Whereat  the  gun  charged  for  the  occasion  was  fired, 
and  the  noise  reverberated  over  the  hills,  the  ball 
went  crashing  through  the  trees,  the  Indians  fell 
prostrate  with  fear,  and  the  noble  Europeans  were 
proud  of  their  superiority."  *  This  was  but  a  sample 
of  the  tricks  played  upon  the  untutored  Indian  by 
these  worthy  Christian  conquerors. 

The  natives  were  subdued,  and,  as  the  conquerors 
found  that  there  was  but  little  gold  to  demand,  the 
precious  metal  being  further  inland,  they  proceeded 
to  expound  the  doctrines  of  their  faith,  "  to  lay  be- 

*  Bancroft's  Works,  vol.  ix,  p.  91. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       209 

fore  them  the  truths  of  the  Gospel  they  had  come 
so  far  to  bring."  An  altar  was  erected  in  the 
heathen  temple,  and  on  it  a  huge  cross.  Father 
Olmedo  preached  through  an  interpreter  named 
Aguilar,  who  had  been  cast  years  before  on  the 
Yucatan  coast,  and  the  first  converts  from  among 
the  natives  of  New  Spain  were  baptized,  consisting 
of  twenty  female  slaves,  all  of  whom  remained  in 
the  camp  of  the  officers.  One  of  these  "  was  a 
young  girl  about  eighteen  years  of  age,  of  noble 
birth,  beauty,  quick  genius,  and  great  spirit."  Jeal 
ousy,  resulting  from  a  second  marriage,  had  caused 
her  mother  to  cast  her  out,  and  when  she  grew  up 
she  was  sold  to  the  Tabascans.  On  being  baptized 
she  received  the  name  of  Marina,  and  accompanied 
Cortez  on  all  his  expeditions.  She  spoke  two  na 
tive  languages  and  soon  acquired  the  Spanish,  thus 
making  herself  invaluable  to  the  conqueror. 

The  Spanish  fleet  pushed  on  still  in  search  of 
gold  and  glory.  A  few  days  later  they  anchored 
in  the  port  of  San  Juan  Ulua,  known  in  modern 
times  by  the  name  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  brief  visits 
of  Grijalva  to  the  Mexican  coast  a  year  prior  had 
been  communicated  to  the  Emperor  Moctezuma. 
Full  of  fear  and  anxiety  he  had  determined,  if  pos 
sible,  to  prevent  the  coming  of  the  "  sons. of  Quet- 

zalcoatl  "  to  usurp  his  kingdom.     He    thought  to 
15 


210  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

do  this  in  a  diplomatic  way.  Hardly  had  the  Span 
ish  fleet  entered  the  port  when  little  canoes  were 
seen  putting  out  from  shore.  An  embassy  from  the 
Aztec  empire  was  reported  as  in  waiting  to  extend 
to  them  a  welcome.  The  following  Sunday  (Easter) 
Cortezwas  on  shore,  and  entertainedthe  embassy  with 
the  greatest  pomp  possible.  He  explained  to  them 
that  he  was  the  subject  of  Don  Carlos  of  Austria, 
the  greatest  king  of  the  East,  whose  bounty,  gran 
deur,  and  power  he  extolled  with  most  magnificent 
praises,  and  added  that  "  this  great  monarch,  know 
ing  of  that  land  and  the  lord  who  reigned  there, 
sent  him  to  make  him  a  visit  in  his  name,  and  to 
communicate  to  him  in  person  some  affairs  of  great 
importance,  and  that,  therefore,  he  would  be  glad 
to  know  when  it  would  please  their  lord  to  hear 
his  embassy."  * 

Moctezuma's  minister,  not  to  be  outdone  in  diplo 
macy,  replied:  "I  have  listened  with  pleasure  to 
what  you  have  told  me  concerning  the  grandeur 
and  bounty  of  your  sovereign,  but  know  that  our 
king  is  not  less  bountiful  and  great ;  I  rather  wonder 
that  there  should  exist  another  in  the  world  more 
powerful  than  he ;  but  as  you  assert  it  I  will  make  it 
known  to  my  sovereign,  from  whose  goodness  I  trust 
that  he  will  not  only  have  pleasure  in  receiving  in- 

*  Clavigero,  vol.  ii,  p.  280. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       211 

telligence  of  that  great  prince,  but  will  likewise  do 
honor  to  his  ambassador.  Accept,  in  the  mean 
time,  this  present  which  I  offer  you  in  his  name." 

The  Aztec  ambassador  then  directed  the  slaves 
"  to  lay  down  the  presents ;  among  them  were 
thirty  bales  of  cotton  fabrics,  from  gauzy  curtains 
to  heavy  robes,  white,  colored,  plain,  and  figured, 
interwoven  with  fantastic  feathers  or  embroidered 
with  gold  and  silver  thread  ;  humming-bird  feath 
ers  and  beautiful  plumes  of  all  colors,  embroidered 
sandals,  and  marcasite  mirrors.  All  these,  however, 
were  trifles  beside  the  gold,  the  bright,  glittering 
gold  and  the  silver  which  were  not  disclosed.  First 
there  was  a  disk  of  the  yellow  metal,  representing 
the  sun  with  its  rays,  as  large  as  a  carriage  wheel, 
ten  spans  in  diameter,  ornamented  in  semi-relief, 
and  valued  at  thirty-eight  hundred  pesos  de  oro. 
A  companion  disk  of  solid  silver,  of  the  same  size, 
and  equally  ornamented,  represented  the  moon. 
Then  there  were  thirty  golden  ducks,  well  fash 
ioned  ;  a  number  of  other  pieces  in  form  of  dogs, 
lions,  monkeys,  and  other  animals ;  ten  collars,  a 
necklace,  with  over  one  hundred  pendant  stones, 
called  emeralds  and  rubies  by  the  Spaniards  ;  twelve 
arrows,  a  bow  with  cord  stretched,  two  staves,  each 
five  palms  in  length ;  fans,  bracelets,  and  other 
pieces,  all  of  fine  gold,  besides  a  number  of  silver. 


2i2  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

What  could  have  delighted  the  Spaniards  more? 
One  thing  only,  and  that  was  not  wanting — the 
gilt  helmet  returned  full  of  virgin  gold,  fine  dust 
and  coarse,  with  a  plentiful  mixture  of  nuggets  of 
various  sizes  and  shapes,  all  fresh  from  the  placers. 
The  value  of  these  was  three  thousand  pesos,  and 
appreciation  was  attracted  not  so  much  by  the 
amount  as  by  the  significance  of  the  gift,  as  Bernal 
Diaz  remarks,  for  it  afforded  a  sure  indication  of 
the  existence  of  rich  mines  in  the  country.  Bras- 
seur  de  Bourbourg  estimated  the  gold  disk  alone 
as  worth  357,380  francs,  or  $70,000.  Doubtless,  as 
Torquemada  says,  it  was  this  gift  which  finally  cost 
Moctezuma  his  head,  for  after  these  rich  samples 
the  hardships  and  dangers  of  the  road  were  less 
than  ever  to  Cortez.  He  is  reported  to  have  sent 
a  message  to  Moctezuma  that  he  and  his  compan 
ions  had  a  complaint,  '  a  disease  of  the  heart,  which 
is  cured  by  gold.'  "  * 

This  same  disease  afflicted  him  on  many  occa 
sions,  especially  when  he  committed  that  fearful 
crime  of  burning  the  feet  of  Cuatemoctzin  and  his 
nephew,  as  referred  to  in  our  first  lecture — a  crime 
that  will  forever  stain  the  records  of  the  conquest. 
Repeated  messages  and  additional  presents  from 
Moctezuma  to  Cortez  and  his  king  were  only  so 
Helps's  Life  of  Cortez^  vol.  i,  p.  56. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       213 

much  fuel  to  the  fire  of  the  conqueror's  greed. 
If  he  ever  vacillated  about  reaching  Moctezuma's 
capital  it  was  not  after  receiving  the  second  em 
bassy  with  their  precious  freight  of  gems,  various 
works  of  gold,  and  ten  bales  of  most  curious  robes 
of  feathers.  Still  later  Moctezuma  made  another 
present  to  Cortez,  of  which,  in  July,  1519,  he  sent 
the  following  to  Charles  V : 

"  Two  wheels  ten  hands  in  diameter,  one  in  gold 
with  the  image  of  the  sun,  and  the  other  of  silver  with 
the  image  of  the  moon  upon  it ;  both  formed  of  plates 
of  these  metals,  with  different  figures  of  animals  and 
other  things  in  basso-relievo,  finished  with  great  in 
genuity  and  art.  A  gold  necklace,  composed  of 
seven  pieces,  with  one  hundred  and  eighty-three 
small  emeralds  set  in  it,  and  two  hundred  and 
thirty-two  gems  similar  to  small  rubies,  from  which 
hung  twenty-seven  little  bells  of  gold  and  some 
pearls.  Another  necklace  of  four  pieces  of  gold, 
with  one  hundred  and  two  red  gems  like  small 
rubies,  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  emeralds,  and 
ten  fine  pearls  set  in,  with  twenty-six  little  bells  of 
gold.  A  head-piece  of  wood  covered  with  gold  and 
adorned  with  gems,  from  which  hung  twenty-five 
little  bells  of  gold  ;  instead  of  a  plume  it  had  a  green 
bird  with  eyes,  beak,  and  feet  of  gold.  A  bracelet 
of  gold.  A  little  rod  like  a  scepter,  with  two  rings 


214  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

of  gold  at  its  extremities,  set  with  pearls.  Four  tri 
dents,  adorned  with  feathers  of  various  colors,  with 
pearl  points  tied  with  gold  thread.  Several  shoes 
of  the  skin  of  the  deer,  sewed  with  gold  thread,  the 
soles  of  which  were  made  of  blue  and  white  stone  of 
Itztli,  extremely  thin.  A  shield  of  wood  and  leather, 
with  little  bells  hanging  to  it  and  covered  with  plates 
of  gold  in  the  middle,  on  which  was  cut  the  image 
of  the  god  of  war  between  four  heads  of  a  lion,  a 
tiger,  an  eagle,  and  an  owl,  represented  alive  with 
their  hair  and  feathers.  Several  dressed  skins  of 
quadrupeds  and  birds  with  their  plumage  and  hair. 
Twenty-four  curious  and  beautiful  shields  of  gold, 
of  feathers  and  silver  only.  Four  fishes,  two  ducks, 
and  some  other  birds  of  cast  gold.  Two  seashells 
of  gold  and  a  large  crocodile  girt  with  threads  of  gold. 
A  large  mirror  adorned  with  gold,  and  many  small 
mirrors.  Several  miters  and  crowns  of  feathers  and 
gold,  ornamented  with  pearls  and  gems.  Several 
large  plumes  of  beautiful  feathers  of  various  colors 
fretted  with  gold  and  small  pearls.  Several  fans  of 
gold  and  feathers  mixed  together ;  others  of  feath 
ers  only,  of  different  forms  and  sizes,  but  all  most 
rich  and  elegant.  A  variety  of  cotton  mantles, 
some  all  white,  others  checkered  with  white  and 
black  or  red,  green,  yellow,  and  blue,  on  the  outside 
rough  like  a  shaggy  cloth  and  without  color  or  nap. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       215 

A  number  of  under  waistcoats,  handkerchiefs, 
counterpanes,  tapestries,  and  carpets  of  cotton. 
All  these  articles  were,  according  to  Gomara,  '  more 
valuable  for  the  workmanship  than  the  material. 
The  colors,'  he  says,  '  of  the  cotton  were  extremely 
fine,  and  those  of  the  feathers  natural.  Their  works 
of  cast  metal  are  not  to  be  compared  by  our  gold 
smiths.'  "* 

This  was  the  first  gold  and  the  first  silver  sent 
from  New  to  Old  Spain — a  small  presage  of  the  im 
mense  treasures  to  be  sent  in  the  future,  and  valued 
at  hundreds  of  millions  in  gold. 

An  invitation  to  visit  Cempoala,  twenty-four 
miles  inland,  was  readily  accepted  by  Cortez,  espe 
cially  as  he  hoped  to  make  its  thousands  of  inhab 
itants  his  allies  before  marching  on  toward  the  un 
known  and  the  mysterious  nations  hidden  in  the 
interior.  Lured  onward,  they  found  Cempoala  to 
be  a  beautiful  city  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  thou 
sand,  according  to  Las  Casas,  but  according  to  Tor- 
quemada  many  times  larger.  They  were  received' 
in  a  most  friendly  way,  "  reveling  in  fruits  and 
flowers,"  while  a  garland,  chiefly  of  roses,  was  flung 
around  the  neck  of  Cortez,  and  a  beautiful  wreath 
placed  upon  his  helmet.  Chicomacatl,  lord  of  the 
province,  was  not  only  cordial  but  communicative, 

*  Bancroft's  Works,  vol,  ix,  p.  129. 


216  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

and,  besides  securing  him  fifty  thousand  Totonacs 
as  friendly  allies,  he  gave  to  Cortez  a  historic  out 
line  of  the  Aztecs  and  all  the  information  which  he  so 
much  needed.  Cortez  then  proceeded  to  manifest 
his  appreciation  of  all  by  a  novel  and  wholesale 
transfer  of  the  entire  kingdom  of  Cempoala  into 
the  "  kingdom  of  grace." 

In  the  center  of  the  beautiful  city  stood  the  tem 
ple  wherein  they  and  their  fathers  had  worshiped 
for  centuries.  Of  all  it  was  to  them  the  dearest  and 
most  sacred  spot  on  earth.  But  Cortez  determined 
that  it  must  be  converted  into  a  Christian  temple. 
So  the  soldiers  were  drawn  up  in  a  cordon  around 
the  temple,  the  cannon,  with  their  concentrated 
thunder  and  lightning,  were  made  ready,  and  the 
following  grandiloquent  address  delivered  by  Cor 
tez  :  "  Courage,  soldiers ;  now  is  the  time  to  show 
that  we  are  Spaniards,  and  that  we  have  inherited 
from  our  ancestors  an  ardent  zeal  for  our  holy  reli 
gion.  Let  us  break  the  idols,  and  take  from  the 
sight  of  those  unbelievers  such  vile  incentives  to 
their  superstition." '  The  cacique  (lord)  of  Cem 
poala  made  a  sign  to  his  people  to  prepare  for  the 
defense  of  their  gods.  But  Cortez  quietly  informed 
him  that  if  any  should  raise  a  ringer  against  the 
Spaniards  these  would  charge  upon  them  with  such 

*  Clavigero,  vol.  ii,  book  viii. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       217 

fury  that  they  would  not  leave  a  native  alive  among 
them.  Thereupon  fifty  soldiers  mounted  into  the 
temple  and  cast  every  idol  down  the  stairs,  while 
the  natives  stood  paralyzed.  Clavigero  adds  :  "  After 
this  daring  act,  where  prudence  was  blinded  by  en 
thusiasm,  Cortez  commanded  the  priests  to  bring 
the  fragments  of  the  idols  before  him  and  throw 
them  into  a  fire.  He  was  immediately  obeyed, 
upon  which,  being  full  of  joy  and  triumph,  as  if 
by  breaking  the  idols  he  had  entirely  banished 
idolatry  and  superstition  from  those  people,  he  told 
their  chief  he  was  now  willing  to  accept  the  eight 
virgins  which  had  been  offered  him  ;  that  from 
that  time  he  would  consider  the  Totonacs  as  his 
friends  and  brothers,  and  in  all  their  exigencies 
would  assist  them  against  their  enemies  ;  that  as 
they  could  never  more  adore  those  detestable 
images  of  the  demon,  their  enemy,  he  would  place 
in  the  same  temple  an  image  of  the  true  mother  of 
God,  that  they  might  worship  and  implore  her  pro 
tection  in  all  their  necessities.  He  then  expatiated 
in  a  long  discourse  upon  the  sanctity  of  the  Chris 
tian  religion  ;  after  which  he  ordered  the  Cempo- 
alese  masons  to  cleanse  the  walls  of  the  temples  of 
those  disgustful  stains  of  human  blood  which  they 
preserved  there  as  trophies  of  their  religion,  and  to 
polish  and  whiten  them.  He  caused  an  altar  to  be 


218  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

made  after  the  mode  of  Christians,  and  placed  the 
image  of  the  most  holy  Mary  there."  * 

This  was  but  a  repetition  of  the  conduct  of  the 
conquerors  in  the  island  of  Cozumel,  where,  only  a 
few  weeks  before,  the  two  missionaries  had  vainly 
labored  to  persuade  the  people  to  destroy  their 
idols  and  embrace  the  true  faith.  They  failed.  But, 
as  Prescott  remarks,  "  Cortez  was  probably  not  much 
of  a  polemic.  At  all  events,  he  preferred  on  the 
present  occasion  action  to  argument,  and  thought 
the  best  way  to  convince  the  Indians  of  their  error 
was  to  prove  the  falsehood  of  the  prediction,"  f  that 
is,  that  the  gods  would  punish  the  proposed  dese 
cration.  "  He  accordingly,  without  further  cere 
mony,  caused  the  venerated  images  to  be  rolled 
down  the  stairs  of  the  great  temple  amid  the  groans 
and  lamentations  of  the  natives.  An  altar  was  has 
tily  constructed,  an  image  of  the  Virgin  and  Child 
placed  over  it,  and  mass  was  performed  by  Father 
Olmedo  and  his  reverend  companion  for  the  first 
time  within  the  walls  of  a  temple  in  New  Spain."  J 
The  ministers  tried  to  pour  the  light  of  their  Gospel 
into  the  benighted  understandings  of  the  islanders, 
and  to  expound  the  mysteries  of  the  Catholic  faith. 
The  Indian  interpreter  must  have  afforded  rather 

*  Book  viii.  f  Conquest ',  vol.  i,  p.  124. 

\  Discoverers  of  Mexico,  Aguilar,  p.  124. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       219 

a  dubious  channel  for  the  transmission  of  such  ab 
struse  doctrines.  But  at  length  they  found  favor 
with  their  auditors,  who,  whether  overawed  by  the 
bold  bearing  of  the  invaders  or  convinced  of  the 
impotence  of  deities  that  could  not  shield  their  own 
shrines  from  violation,  consented  to  embrace  Chris 
tianity.  And  this  was  his  line  of  conduct  through 
out.  Strange  way  was  this  of  doing  missionary 
work  and  Christianizing  the  natives.  But  such  a 
course  has  left  its  legitimate  fruits — fruits  seen  all 
over  Mexico  to  this  very  day.  So  that  the  great 
Humboldt,  visiting  Mexico  three  hundred  years 
later,  wrote:  "  The  introduction  of  the  Romish  re 
ligion  had  no  other  effect  upon  the  Mexicans  than 
to  substitute  ceremonies  and  symbols  for  the  rites  of 
a  sanguinary  worship.  Dogma  has  not  succeeded 
dogma,  but  only  ceremony  to  ceremony.  I  have 
seen  them,  marked  and  adorned  with  tinkling  bells, 
perform  savage  dances  around  the  altar  while  a 
monk  of  St.  Francis  elevated  the  host." 

Dr.  Gorham  D.  Abbott,  some  years  later,  sums  up 
his  observations  thus:  "Christianity,  instead  of  ful 
filling  its  mission  of  enlightening,  converting,  and 
sanctifying  the  natives,  was  itself  converted.  Pagan 
ism  was  baptized,  Christianity  paganized." 

The  author  of  Mexico  in  Transition  forcibly  adds : 
"  The  Christianization  of  such  a  mass  of  humanity 


220  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

by  a  mere  handful  of  military  adventurers  and  their 
few  clerical  helpers,  by  the  offhand  methods  which 
they  employed,  frequently  at  the  sword's  point,  is 
an  awful  part  of  the  record  that  has  come  down  to 
us.  The  world  never  before  witnessed  any  such 
process  as  they  adopted  in  Christianizing  those 
whom  their  cruelty  spared."  * 

It  is  refreshing,  indeed,  to  find  one,  if  only  one, 
among  the  companions  of  Cortez  protesting  against 
this  wholesale  and  flimsy  process  of  conversion. 
The  protester  was  Father  Las  Casas,  who  insisted 
on  "  the  futility  of  these  forced  conversions,  by 
which  it  was  proposed  in  a  few  days  to  wean  men 
from  the  idolatry  which  they  had  been  taught  to 
reverence  from  the  cradle.  The  only  way  of  do 
ing  this,"  the  good  bishop  said,  "  is  by  long,  assidu 
ous,  and  faithful  preaching,  until  the  heathen  shall 
gather  some  ideas  of  the  true  nature  of  the  Deity 
and  of  the  doctrines  they  are  to  embrace.  Above 
all,  the  lives  of  the  Christians  should  be  such  as  to 
exemplify  the  truth  of  these  doctrines,  that  seeing 
this  the  poor  Indian  may  glorify  the  Father  and 
acknowledge  him  who  has  such  worshipers  for  the 
true  and  only  God."  f  He,  of  all  others  who  came 
with  the  conquerors,  had  a  right  thus  to  talk.  Such 
was  his  true  apostolic  spirit,  such  his  faithful  work 

*  Page  10.  \  Quoted  by  Dr.  Kirk  in  Lippincott's  Prescott. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       221 

for  the  poor  Indian,  and  such  his  upright  life,  that 
to  this  day  his  name  is  not  only  carried  by  one  of 
the  States  of  the  Mexican  republic,  but  is  held  in 
sacred  remembrance  by  multitudes  who  look  upon 
him  as  an  exception  to  the  ruinous  rule  of  colonial 
times  and  tyrants. 

Happy  the  leader  who  can  turn  the  disaffection 
of  his  men  to  his  own  advantage.  The  excessive 
heat,  barren  coasts,  annoying  insects,  bilious  fevers, 
and  days  of  idleness  were  enough  to  create  dissatis 
faction  in  the  camp,  and  a  clamor  was  raised  favor 
ing  a  speedy  return  to  Cuba.  This  was  no  doubt 
fomented  by  personal  followers  of  Velasquez,  the 
lieutenant  governor  of  the  island,  and  of  whom 
Cortez  had  reason  to  be  apprehensive,  especially  in 
view  of  his  (Velasquez)  efforts  to  misrepresent  him 
before  Charles  V,  who  had  recently  come  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  But  this  proved  to  be  Cortez 's 
hour — an  hour,  too,  for  which  he  had  doubtless 
longed.  Gold  was  coming  in  too  rapidly,  land  and 
peoples  were  being  conquered  apace.  What  if  all 
this  should  belong  to  Velasquez?  When,  however, 
the  rebellion  in  the  camp  came  he  appeared  willing 
to  return  to  Cuba,  and  actually  ordered  an  embar- 
cation.  But  then  the  men  were  not  ready  to  go. 
Hence  another  course  was  decided  upon.  A  colony 
should  be  founded,  a  government  should  be  estab- 


222  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

lished.  This  accomplished,  he  laid  his  commission 
upon  the  table  before  the  thus  "  duly  constituted 
authorities,  and  retired  from  the  assembly."  He 
was  absent  but  a  short  time  when,  on  being  called 
in,  he  was  informed  of  the  fact  that  "  they  had 
unanimously  named  him,  in  behalf  of  their  Catholic 
Highness,  Captain  General  and  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Colony."  He  had  played  his  part  diplomatically 
and  boldly,  and  henceforth  was  responsible  for  his 
conduct  to  the  king  and  queen  at  Madrid,  and  not 
to  their  lieutenant  at  Cuba.  From  this  on  one  fifth 
of  all  the  gold  and  silver  obtained  by  commerce  or 
conquest  became  his  personal  right.  Clothed  with 
supreme  civil  and  military  jurisdiction  Cortez  was 
not  backward  in  asserting  his  authority.  The  mal 
contents,  even  the  three  who  had  a  few  days  before 
been  reduced  to  chains,  accepted  the  situation  and, 
indeed,  ere  long  became  devoted  partisans  of  Cortez. 
He  was  supreme  master  of  the  situation,  at  least 
for  the  time.  A  pompous  dispatch  was  sent  by 
special  envoy  to  Spain  (the  original  of  which  is  pre 
served  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna),  and  New 
Spain  was  thus,  by  the  fiat  of  one  bold  man, 
launched  on  the  sea  of  nations,  a  sea  tempestuous 
enough  in  succeeding  centuries. 

A  second  conspiracy  served   to  make  the  leader 
bolder  than  ever.     The  two  ringleaders  were  hung, 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       223 

though  it  is  said  that  Cortez,  when  signing  their 
death  warrants,  like  Nero  of  old,  was  heard  to  ex 
claim,  "  Would  that  I  had  never  learned  to  write  !  " 
Something  had  to  be  done  and  done  quickly  for 
ever  to  suppress  these  disturbances,  and  Cortez 
secretly  resolved  what  that  something  should  be. 
They  were  at  Cempoala,  a  short  distance  inland,  so 
the  soldiers  could  see  and  know  nothing  till  it  was 
all  over.  The  something  upon  which  he  resolved 
was  to  destroy  the  ships  and  thus  cut  off  all  possi 
bility  of  return  to  Cuba.  Under  the  pretext  that 
the  vessels  were  injured  by  storms  and  also  by  a 
water  insect  known  to  be  mischievously  active  in 
those  tropical  seas,  five,  and,  later  on,  four  more 
ships  were  sunk,  leaving  but  one  small  vessel  afloat. 
After  reaching  this  conclusion  in  his  own  mind 
he  next  sought  to  carry  with  him,  if  possible,  the 
conviction  of  his  men.  Here  again  he  was  equal  to 
the  occasion.  The  first  reports  had  only  enraged 
the  crowd,  and  they  declared  themselves  betrayed, 
and  being  "  led  as  lambs  to  the  slaughter."  "  For 
shame  !  be  men  !  "  he  cried.  "  You  should  know 
ere  this  how  vain  are  the  attempts  to  thwart  my 
purpose.  Look  on  this  magnificent  land,  with  its 
vast  treasures,  and  narrow  not  your  vision  to  your 
insignificant  selves.  Think  of  your  glorious  reward 
present  and  to  come,  and  trust  in  God,  who,  if  it  so 


224  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

please  him,  can  conquer  this  empire  with  a  single 
arm.  Yet,  if  there  be  one  here  still  so  craven  as  to 
wish  to  turn  his  back  on  the  glories  and  advantages 
thus  offered  ;  if  there  be  one  here  so  base,  so  recre 
ant  to  heaven,  to  his  king,  to  his  comrades,  as  to 
shrink  from  such  honorable  duty,  in  God's  name  let 
him  go.  There  is  one  ship  left,  which  I  will  equip 
at  my  own  charge,  and  leave  to  that  man  the  im 
mortal  infamy  he  deserves."  * 

His  impassioned  and  nervous  eloquence  had  the 
desired  effect.  Cortez  knew  his  men  as  the  good 
musician  knows  his  instrument.  Cheer  after  cheer 
rent  the  air,  and  when  at  last  came  a  lull  he  qui 
etly  asked,  "  Would  it  not  be  well  to  destroy  the 
remaining  vessel  and  so  make  a  safe,  clean  thing  of 
it?"  hearty  approval  was  given,  and  again  the  air 
was  rent  with  cries  ;  but  this  time  all  united  in  ex 
claiming,  "  To  Mexico  !  To  Mexico  !  " 

"Thus,"  as  Robertson  says,  "from  an  effort  of 
magnanimity,  to  which  there  is  nothing  parallel  in 
history,  five  hundred  men  voluntarily  consented  to 
be  shut  up  in  a  hostile  country  filled  with  powerful 
and  unknown  nations,  and,  having  precluded  any 
means  of  escape,  left  themselves  without  any  re 
source  but  their  own  valor  and  perseverance."  f 

*  Bancroft's  Works,  vol.  ix,  p.  184. 
f  America,  p.  211. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       225 

Gibbon,  in  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  cites  the  case  of  Julian,  who,  in  his  un 
fortunate  Assyrian  invasion,  burnt  the  fleet  which 
had  carried  him  up  the  Tigris.  But  the  historian 
shows  that  the  fleet  would  have  actually  proven  a 
hindrance  rather  than  a  help,  so  that  we  think 
Robertson's  language  cannot  be  regarded  as  ex 
travagant  when  he  declares  Cortez's  conduct  "  with 
out  a  parallel  in  history." 

"  To  success  or  total  destruction  now  we  march, 
for  there  is  open  to  us  no  retreat !  "  again  cried 
Cortez.  "  In  Christ  we  trust,  and  on  our  arms  rely, 
and,  though  few  in  numbers,  our  hearts  are  strong."  * 

"We  are  ready  to  obey  you,"  came  back  the 
ready  answer  from  hundreds  of  voices.  "  Our 
fortunes,  for  better  or  worse,  are  cast  with  yours."  f 

On  the  i6th  of  August,  1521,  four  hundred  and 
fifty  Spanish  soldiers,  with  fifteen  horses  and  six  or 
seven  light  cannon,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
friendly  Indians  and  Cubans,  with  about  thirteen 
hundred  Totonacs,  started  up  the  steep  Cordilleras, 
determined,  as  Cortez  is  reported  to  have  said,  "  to 
tread  the  streets  of  the  Mexican  capital  before  he 
entered  the  gates  of  the  celestial  city."  Following 
the  advice  of  the  Totonacs  they  chose  their  route 
through  Tlaxcala,  as  these  people  were  not  only 

*  Bancroft,  Vol.  ix,  p.  191.  f  Prescott,  vol.  i,  p.  176. 

16 


226  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

friendly  to  the  Totonacs,  but  ancient  and  deadly 
enemies  to  the  Mexicans.  The  story  of  their 
march,  their  engagement  with  the  Tlaxcalans  under 
the  valiant  Xicotencatl,  the  subsequent  declaration 
of  peace  and  final  alliance  with  these  brave  people, 
is  magnificently  told  by  the  florid  Prescott,  the 
enchanting  Clavigero,  the  prolific  Bancroft,  and 
others  to  whom  we  might  refer.  But  we  hasten  to 
the  end  of  the  story.  We  pause,  however,  to  re 
mark  that  Cortez  in  his  dispatches  compared  the  city 
of  Tlaxcala  to  Granada,  saying  that  it  was  larger, 
stronger,  and  more  populous  than  the  Moorish 
capital  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.* 

The  little  republic  of  Tlaxcala  is  said  to  have 
contained  about  half  a  million  of  people,  one  tenth 
of  whom  at  least  were  under  arms.  And  yet,  after 
three  battles  of  more  or  less  severity,  this  handful 
of  Spanish  invaders  were  masters  of  the  situation. 
It  has  always  been  a  wonder  that  such  a  small  num 
ber  of  men  could  have  prevailed  against  such  multi 
tudes.  There  are  a  few  simple  reasons  : 

1.  The   natives   were  strangers  to  military  order 
and  discipline. 

2.  The  imperfection  of  their  weapons  was  against 
them.       These     consisted     of    slings,     bows,     and 
arrows,   spears,  sticks  hardened   in   fire,  swords   of 

*  Clavigero,  p,  323. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.      227 

wood,  and  war  clubs.  Destructive  enough  were 
they  among  naked  Indians,  but  most  of  them  were 
of  small  avail  against  Spanish  bucklers  and  quilted 
jackets. 

3.  The  natives  lost  in  a  great  measure  the 
strength  they  might  have  derived  from  superior 
numbers  by  their  constant  solicitude  to  carry  off 
the  dead  and  wounded,  even  during  the  thick  of  the 
combat,  to  prevent  their  being  devoured  by  the 
enemy. 

There  was  a  strange  barbarous  generosity  among 
the  natives.  For  instance,  the  Tlaxcalans  advised 
the  Spaniards  of  their  hostile  intentions,  and  sup 
posing  the  invaders  to  be  without  provisions  sent 
supplies  of  "  poultry  and  maize"  into  their  camp, 
and  Herrera  and  Gomara  further  declare  that  "  they 
desired  them  to  eat  plentifully,  because  they  scorned 
to  attack  an  enemy  enfeebled  by  hunger,  and  it 
would  be  an  affront  to  their  gods  to  offer  them 
famished  victims,  as  well  as  disagreeable  to  feed  on 
such  emaciated  prey." ' 

No  wonder  the  Spaniards  triumphed  in  Mexico. 
One  of  the  most  cruel  deeds  of  the  conquest  was 
committed  in  Tlaxcala.  Fifty  spies  were  captured 
in  the  Spanish  camp.  Cortez,  to  show  the  superior 
power  of  the  Christian  soldiers,  ordered  both  hands 

*  Quoted  by  Robertson,  p.  214. 


228  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

of  the  fifty  Indians  chopped  off,  and  thus  maimed 
they  returned  to  their  side  of  the  line. 

Soon  after  this  the  intrepid  conqueror  had  the 
audacity  to  demand,  with  sword  in  hand,  of  the 
Tlaxcalans  J:hat,  as  a  nation,  they  be  baptized  and 
accept  Christianity.  Indeed,  but  for  the  advice  of 
Father  Olmedo,  he  might  have  compelled  them 
to  do  so.  For  Cortez  certainly  belonged  to  the 
Church  militant,  spoken  of  by  the  English  poet : 

"  Such  as  do  build  their  faith  upon 
The  holy  text  of  pike  and  gun, 
And  prove  their  doctrines  orthodox 
By  apostolic  blows  and  knocks." 

No  wonder,  after  all  this,  that  as  Cortez  tried  to 
insist  upon  the  casting  down  of  the  idols  and  the 
substitution  of  his  emblems  of  religion,  that  the 
Tlaxcalans  replied  they  were  willing  to  give  the  God 
of  the  Christians  a  place  among  the  divinities  of 
Tlaxcala.  They  were  willing  under  threat  to  please 
their  friend  Cortez,  especially  since  "  their  polytheis 
tic  system,  like  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  was  of 
that  accommodating  kind  which  could  admit  within 
its  elastic  folds  the  deities  of  any  other  religion 
without  violence  to  itself."  * 

The  news  of  Tlaxcala  affairs  was  daily  communi 
cated  to  the  Aztec  capital,  and  Moctezuma's  fears 

*  Prescott,  p.  212. 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.        229 

were  constantly  on  the  increase.  Hence  he  feigned 
to  be  friendly,  and  sent  Cortez  costly  presents  and 
an  urgent  invitation  to  visit  him.  This  simply  ag 
gravated  his  "  heart  disease  "  and  hastened  his  steps 
coward  Mexico,  that  mysterious  capital  of  a  hitherto 
unconquered  race. 

Cholula,  the  holy  city  of  Anahuac,  was  soon  over 
thrown,  though  the  massacre  of  six  thousand  men 
under  the  shadow  of  its  gigantic  pyramid  makes 
one  of  the  darkest  pages  in  the  annals  of  the  con 
quest.  A  reconciliation  was  effected  between  its 
people  and  the  Tlaxcalans,  and  Cortez's  little  band 
of  foreigners  headed  the  united  forces  of  Cempoala, 
Tlaxcala,  Cholula,  and  Huexotzinco,  numbering  in 
all  some  six  thousand  men. 

The  downfall  of  Cholula,  and  the  silence  of  the 
Mexican  gods  when  consulted,  only  served  to 
deepen  the  awe  of  Moctezuma  into  terror  as  the 
Spaniards  approached.  The  idols  were  again  con 
sulted  and  this  time  Huitzilopochtli  suggested  that 
the  strangers  be  invited  in,  their  retreat  be  cut  off, 
and  that  they  be  captured  and  sacrificed  on  the 
altar,  after  which  their  flesh  should  be  eaten  There 
fore  friendly  embassies  with  additional  presents  were 
dispatched  to  hasten  their  coming.  The  army  con 
tinued  its  march,  crossing  the  mountains  between 
the  snow-capped  volcanoes  of  Popocatepetl  and 


230  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Ixtaccihuatl,  from  which  point  the  Spaniards  had 
their  first  view  of  the  magnificent  valley  of  Mexico 
— a  scene  which  Humboldt  declares  has  few  supe 
riors  in  all  the  world.  Thus  between  the  gates  of 
the  sunset  came  the  fair  children  of  the  sun,  and  the 
prophecy  of  the  oldest  Mexican  astrologers  became 
reality. 

We  must  refer  you  to  the  standard  histories  for 
the  narrative  of  the  hard  marches  through  and 
around  the  valley,  the  first  interview  with  Mocte- 
zuma,  the  entrance  into  the  imperial  city,  the  long- 
wished-for  goal,  Cortez's  first  visit  in  company  with 
the  Aztec  emperor  to  the  great  Teocalli,  the  ac 
cidental  discovery  of  the  hidden  cave  which  fairly 
blazed  with  treasures,  and  the  final  imprisonment 
of  Moctezuma.  The  subsequent  events  which  led 
up  to  the  death  of  Moctezuma,  and  the  final  and 
complete  subjugation  of  the  Aztecs  to  the  Spaniards, 
consummated  on  the  I3th  of  August,  1521,  while  of 
most  thrilling  interest,  cannot  here  be  detailed. 

The  conquest  would,  doubtless,  have  been  an  im 
possibility  had  the  native  tribes  been  united  in  de 
fense  of  their  common  country.  Be  that  as  it  may,  we 
have  the  wonderful  spectacle  presented  to  the  world 
of  a  few  hundred  Europeans,  with  their  superior 
arms,  and  doubtless  aided  by  the  divisions  and  the 
superstitions  of  the  natives,  becoming  masters  of 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       231 

many  millions  of  Mexicans.  And  of  these  millions 
they  became  the  earthly  masters  for  three  hundred 
years.  Well  may  the  world  ask,  With  what  results  ? 

The  chief  centers  of  population  were  finally  led" 
to  an  outward  acceptance  of  the  forms  and  ceremo 
nies  of  Christianity.  The  rural  and  mountain  dis 
tricts,  too  often  like  the  Tlaxcalans,  were  willing  to 
place  the  God  of  the  Christians  among  their  other 
deities,  and  to  this  day  their  religious  feasts  justify 
the  opinion  of  Humboldt,  already  quoted,  concern 
ing  the  mixture  of  savage  and  Christian  ceremonies. 
To  the  world  it  was  announced  that  a  nation  had 
been  Christianized.  But  among  the  members  of 
the  Church  making  this  empty  boast  are  found  to 
day,  as  well  as  in  the  past,  wise  men  who  do  not  hesi 
tate,  like  Abbe  Emanuel  Domenech,  to  assert  that 
"  the  Mexican  faith  is  a  dead  faith,"  and  "  the  Mex 
ican  is  not  a  Catholic  ;  he  is  simply  a  Christian,  be 
cause  he  has  been  baptized."  * 

What  Spain  did  for  Mexico  in  this  and  other 
senses  is  so  well  told  by  one  of  Mexico's  noblest 
and  most  eloquent  sons,  that  we  quote  at  length 
from  a  speech  which  the  Hon.  Ignacio  Ramirez 
made  a  few  years  since  before  one  of  the  lyceums 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  We  have  two  objects  in 
making  the  lengthy  quotation  ;  one  is  to  give  a 

*  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  Abbott,  pp.  195-203. 


232  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

sample  of  native  eloquence  (for  Judge  Ramirez 
was  a  pure  Indian),  and  the  other  is  to  show  how 
intelligent  Mexicans  of  the  present  age  regard  the 
people  by  whom  they  were  conquered  three  hun 
dred  and  fifty  years  ago.  This  learned  but  now 
lamented  Indian  said  : 

"  The  ephemeral  grandeur  of  Spain  overawes  the 
mind.  Southern  nations  were  accustomed,  in  times 
of  peace,  to  ornament  their  conquerors'  weapons 
with  emeralds  and  diamonds  ;  but  the  Spaniards, 
after  two  thousand  years  of  conflict,  from  the  times 
of  the  Carthaginians  to  the  capture  of  Granada,  be 
came  so  unnatural  that,  even  when  the  world  was  at 
their  feet,  they  found  no  time  to  cleanse  the  escutch 
eon  of  the  Cid  or  of  Pelayo.  They  did  not  enjoy 
opulence  for  a  single  day.  They  rendered  homage 
to  a  foreigner,  and  the  latter  dedicated  the  fabu 
lous  heritage  of  the  Catholic  kings  to  the  most  dar 
ing  schemes.  On  the  death  of  Charles  V  Spain 
found  her  people  scattered  by  long  distances,  her 
agriculture  harvested  by  the  Moors,  her  industries 
victimized,  her  commerce  discounted,  her  wise  men 
burned  as  heretics,  her  municipal  liberties  circum 
scribed  by  prison  bars,  her  fleets  in  the  hands  of 
pirates,  and  her  only  recompense  Philip  II,  the  In 
quisition,  and  the  Jesuits.  Her  great  captains, 
her  skilled  diplomats,  her  profound  savants,  in 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       233 

Flanders  in  France,  in  Italy,  in  the  Lepant  Seas, 
arose  to  the  occasion  in  Europe,  forgetting  that 
their  luminous  glory  and  their  skill  might  properly 
lay  broad  the  foundations  of  future  nationalities  on 
the  golden  soil  of  the  New  World.  Mexico  was 
not  entered,  at  first,  save  by  miserable  adventurers, 
commercial  pirates,  knights  of  the  sword  and  in 
cense. 

"  Columbus,  following  doubtful  tracks,  died  in 
the  belief  that  the  Antilles  formed  part  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  that  he  had  discovered  the  gates  of 
paradise  and  caught  glimpses  of  its  heavenly  foliage. 
Cortez  assassinated  kings  without  daring  to  usurp 
their  thrones,  and,  vested  with  the  title  of  a  mar 
quis,  posed  before  the  courts  of  Europe  as  an  en 
nobled  lackey.  The  Spanish  *  Audience  '  was  con 
verted  into  a  market  place,  where  the  Indian  and  his 
wealth  were  placed  at  public  auction.  The  wise 
men  denied  to  the  Aztecs  even  the  gift  of  reason. 
The  sailors  were  unable  to  make  a  chart  of  the  seas 
they  overran,  and,  against  the  protest  of  wiser  heads, 
regarded  Yucatan  and  Lower  California  as  islands. 
The  historians  authorized  the  most  absurd  fables. 
The  bishops  prepared  the  miracles  and  apparitions 
which  one  century  later  were  to  be  consecrated  as 
authentic.  The  Portuguese  merchants  themselves 
saw  their  goods  confiscated,  and  were  likewise 


234  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

burned  at  the  stake  as  usurers.  Laws  were  con 
cocted,  and  then  put  into  play  whereby  Mexico 
should  not  produce  wines,  nor  silks,  nor  pottery,  nor 
tobacco,  but  should  simply  supply  to  the  conquer 
ors  the  precious  metals.  The  shops  and  the  seas 
were  closed  ;  the  colleges  were  hidden  in  the  con 
vents,  with  an  inquisitor  as  the  jailer.  The  Jesuits 
conspired  against  the  Franciscans,  the  Dominicans 
and  Augustines,  sole  protectors  of  the  Indians. 
The  protection  imparted  to  the  Indians  was  limited 
to  a  declaration  that  they  were  simply  minors. 

"With  the  viceregal  government  appeared  a 
constant  order  of  things,  the  sanction  of  all  the 
monstrosities  of  the  conquest.  No  one  in  the  list 
of  viceroys  and  archbishops  was  elevated  enough  to 
keep  pace  with  the  contemporaneous  events  of 
Europe.  The  nobles  of  Mexico  saw  in  reform  a 
scandal ;  in  the  commercial  battles  of  Holland  and 
England  a  nursery  for  filibusters  ;  in  French  philos 
ophy  an  eternal  anathema ;  in  the  emancipation  of 
the  United  States  a  menace  ;  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  a  state  secret ;  in  the  relations  with  China  a 
market  of  fans  and  combs;  in  the  colonial  govern 
ment  a  mere  speculation  ;  in  the  middle  classes  bur 
den  bearers,  and  in  the  Indian  but  an  animal.  Three 
kinds  of  slavery,  with  these  elements,  were  firmly 
established  in  New  Spain,  each  a  distinct  system 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.        235 

of  tyranny,  to  wit,  the  king,  the  pope,  and  foreign 
commercial  control. 

"  During  the  colonial  times  the  Indian  policy  was 
reduced  to  the  sustenance  of  a  viceroy  easily  re 
placed,  under  the  keen  eye  of  a  scrutinizing  'Audi 
ence.'  This  body  had  judicial  jurisdiction  and 
police  jurisdiction  over  the  colonies.  Spain  only 
recognized  America  in  as  far  as  the  latter  contrib 
uted  to  her  revenues.  It  mattered  not  in  Spain 
whether  the  Indians  were  rational  beings  or  mere 
brutes,  freemen  or  slaves,  or  whether  they  were  pre 
served  or  annihilated.  At  times  Spain  became 
alarmed,  for  the  rich  soil  of  Mexico  produced  what 
easily  competed  with  the  products  of  Europe.  She 
scorned  our  advances  in  civilization,  and  was  only 
pleased  when  the  vessels  laden  with  gold  and  silver 
reached  the  wharves  of  Cadiz.  She  deigned  like 
wise  to  accept  as  gifts  either  an  idol  or  a  cacique 
(native  chieftain). 

"  The  clergy  with  rare  discretion  never  lost  an 
opportunity  for  extending  and  strengthening  their 
own  influence.  For  three  hundred  years  the  clergy 
governed  Mexico  by  means  of  bishops  and  arch 
bishops,  seated  on  the  thrones  of  the  viceroys. 
They  even  held  the  lay  viceroys  themselves  in 
their  power,  under  the  threat  of  excommunication. 
The  clergy  served  as  friendly  arbiters  among  the 


236  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

peoples  recently  converted ;  they  legislated  in  their 
very  missions ;  they  monopolized  public  education  ; 
they  became  capitalists,  and  in  their  acts  of  usury 
far  surpassed  the  Shylocks  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  Jesuits  were  their  secret  police  and  the  Inqui 
sition  was  a  living  tomb.  They  mingled  their 
European  blood  with  that  of  the  Indian,  and  then 
conferred  on  their  bastard  offspring  the  Church's 
best  curates.  They  raised  cathedrals  of  mocking 
splendor  and  built  great  convents  and  churchly  re 
treats,  while  the  viceroys  built  jails,  mints,  and  tax 
offices.  They  fixed  civil  time  to  the  exigencies  of 
numerous  feasts  and  religious  practices.  They 
mingled  the  Indian  and  the  Spaniard  in  one  flock, 
and  merged  God  and  the  pope  into  two  invisible 
sovereignties.  Madrid  was  for  us  but  an  office  of 
Rome. 

"  Another  power  meanwhile  grew  rapidly  and 
became  a  menace  to  the  Spaniards,  to  the  clergy 
themselves,  and  to  the  indigenous  classes.  Foreign 
commerce,  piratical,  authorized  in  its  contraband 
features,  under  contract  and  without,  flooded  with 
their  effects  all  of  desolated  Spain  and  its  idle  colo 
nies.  .  .  .  The  nations  directly  interested  in  free 
commerce  were  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States.  Spain,  exorcised  in  Charles  II  the  Be 
witched,  had  at  the  head  of  affairs  Fernando  VII, 


THE  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.       237 

while  its  emblem  was  the  green  candle  of  the  Inqui 
sition,  its  assistants  were  resurrected  Jesuits,  and  its 
exchequer  was  debt.  Mexico,  in  such  conditions, 
should  be  civilly  emancipated  from  the  clergy  ;  but 
another  struggle  had  to  ensue  ere  the  chains  placed 
by  priestly  hands  could  break. 

"  The  administrative  chaos,  called  the  colonial 
regime,  presented  various  phenomena.  Some  classes 
were  born  and  others  died.  Can  the  loss  ever  be 
realized  to  the  native  races  worn  away  on  the  wheel 
of  events  in  Tenochtitlan  ?  For  three  hundred  years 
two  hundred  thousand  men,  half  of  them  of  the 
Tlaltelolco  race,  occupied  this  famous  capital. 
Where  are  they  now  ?  If  we  glance  over  Lower 
California,  there  in  Todos  Santos,  we  might  find 
perhaps  one  old  Indian,  bowed  and  blind,  bent  un 
der  the  weight  of  fourscore  years,  and  he  even  per 
haps  now  sleeps  with  his  fathers.  It  only  needed 
six  or  seven  Jesuits  to  depopulate  that  California!! 
peninsula.  On  the  other  hand,  the  preponderant 
Mexican  race  feels  coursing  through  its  veins  the 
mercurial  blood  of  every  nation  in  the  world.  Re 
ligion  and  despotism  have  engendered  equality. 

"  Unfortunately  idleness  characterized  life  in  the 
colonies.  The  civil  and  the  religious  authorities 
worked  but  an  hour  or  two  during  half  the  days  of 
the  year.  The  owners  of  plantations  trusted  their 


238  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

properties  to  the  foreman  or  the  lessee,  while  many 
were  parasites  by  profession.  Foreign  nations  have 
surprised  us  with  our  coasts  deserted,  our  country 
without  roads,  our  people  uninspired  by  the  arts  or 
dead  to  great  business  ventures ;  absolutely  igno 
rant  of  our  own  wonderful  resources,  and  only  able 
to  acquire  the  envied  possessions  of  another  people 
when  our  miners  sent  abroad  our  precious  metals. 
Spain  lost  her  colonies  because  she  only  cherished 
therein  tax  collectors,  priests  and  miners."* 

The  educated  Indian,  now  constantly  growing  in 
numbers,  in  our  sister  republic,  will  never  have  this 
awful  picture  erased  from  his  mind.  No  wonder 
that,  as  he  reflected  how  all  this  was  done  in  the 
name  of  the  holy  Catholic  faith,  he  often  asked, 
"  Where  is  God  ?  "  While  some  of  the  more  reli 
giously  inclined  were  led  to  cry  out,  "  How  long,  O 
Lord,  how  long !  " 

*Obras  de  Ignacio  Ramirez,  pp.  230-235. 


LECTURE  VII. 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION 
OF  1857. 


LECTURE  VII. 
INDEPENDENCE  AND   THE   CONSTITUTION   OF   1857. 

THE  sentiments  so  eloquently  expressed  by 
the  lamented  Ramirez  were  entertained  by  at 
least  three  fourths  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
in  the  early  part  of  this  century.  The  perpetual 
drainage  of  the  country's  wealth  by  means  of  all 
kinds  of  taxation,  the  practical  inthralldom  of  the 
indigenous  races,  their  "  lack  of  knowledge  and  no 
means  placed  within  their  reach  to  secure  it," 
proved  too  conclusively  to  the  poor  Mexican  that 
the  Spaniards  never  recovered  from  the  dreadful 
"  disease  of  the  heart  which  gold  alone  could  cure," 
announced  by  Cortez,  and  that  this  disease,  so  fre 
quently  manifested  during  the  conquest  and  the 
colonial  times,  was  in  no  way  lessening.  They,  the 
lawful  owners  of  the  country,  became  but  the  unfor 
tunate  victims  of  intruders.  They  could  only  judge 
by  results.  They  had  been  conquered  in  the  name 
of  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  holy  father  in  Rome. 
The  former,  in  robbing  them  of  their  country,  had 
cruelly  burned  the  feet  of  two  of  their  native  rulers 
to  compel  them  to  reveal  their  hidden  treasures — a 
17 


242  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

cruelty  kept  up,  in  a  modified  sense,  through  all  the 
three  centuries ;  while  the  representatives  of  the 
latter,  from  the  time  of  Bishop  Zumarraga  down 
to  the  ecclesiastics  of  the  nineteenth  century,  not 
only  shared  this  "  cursed  lust  of  gold  "  with  the 
civil  oppressors,  but  had,  as  a  rule,  done  compara 
tively  little  to  educate  or  elevate  the  Mexicans. 
Indeed,  since  the  day  in  1530  that  Zumarraga  had 
collected  all  their  beautiful  works  of  art — "  their 
abominable  scrolls  and  manuscripts,  wherein  every 
sign  or  picture  seemed  to  the  prelate  the  embodi 
ment  of  Satanic  art  and  witchery  " — gathered  them 
from  public  places  and  private  homes,  and  cast 
them  into  one  vast  pile  in  the  market  place  to  be 
burned,  the  representatives  of  the  Church  showed 
clearly  the  fear  entertained  by  them  that  the  world 
at  large  might  learn  something  of  the  civilization 
which  they  were  despoiling  in  Mexico.  Not  only 
the  civilization  and  arts  of  the  natives,  but  their 
families  as  well  were  despoiled  by  priest  and  sol 
dier.  Immediately  following  the  triumph  of  Cortez, 
wh.en  the  Mexican  prince  warned  him  that  if  their 
"  wives  and  daughters  were  not  returned  to  their 
homes  there  might  be  a  revolt  among  the  Indians," 
and  down  to  modern  times,  both  Spanish  priest 
and  ruler  have  constantly  invaded  households  and 
dragged  souls  into  "  the  gall  of  bitterness."  In  early 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.  243 

•'  ^  • 

colonial  times  Concubinage  among  the  priests  was 
only  punished  when  it  became  too  public  and  too 
scandalous. 

So  at  last  when  they  realized  the  burden  of  cen 
turies — "  iron  despotism,  in  which  priest  and  soldier 
bore  an  equal  part " — and  aspirations  after  inde 
pendence  and  liberty  had  been  burning  in  their 
secret  souls  for  many  a  long  day,  the  "  Grito  de 
Dolores,"  raised  in  1810  by  the  venerable  curate, 
Hidalgo,  found  ready  response  in  every  corner  of 
the  land,  and  with  reason,  too.  From  1535  to 
1821  sixty-one  foreign  viceroys  had  governed  Mex 
ico.  Domineering  in  the  exercise  of  their  absolute 
rule,  and  in  the  monopoly  of  places  of  trust  and 
power,  they  oppressed  and  insulted  the  natives  till 
intense  hatred  of  everything  Spanish  became  the 
natural  result.  Even  the  Creole  descendants  were 
by  law  prohibited  from  participation  in  government 
service. 

Legislation  in  Madrid  concerning  New  Spain  was 
exclusive  and  oppressive,  so  much  so  that  certain 
industries,  such  as  the  raising  of  silkworms  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  to  which  the  climate 
and  soil  of  Mexico  were,  and  are  now,  peculiarly 
adapted,  were  interdicted — thus  compelling  Mex 
ico  to  buy  of  Spain.  The  owners  of  many 
of  the  largest  estates  lived  across  the  Atlantic 


244  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

and  drew  their  revenues  out  of  the  country. 
Others  lived  in  the  capital,  who  seldom  if  ever  saw 
their  great  farms,  which  were  managed,  as  in  the 
former  case,  by  administradores.  In  1803  Jose  de 
Iturrigaray  came  from  Spain  as  viceroy.  But  his 
inclination  to  give  the  Creoles  a  chance  cost  him 
his  position.  Being  hastily  removed,  the  arch 
bishop  was  placed  in  power  till  the  arrival  of  a  new 
viceroy,  a  more  reliable  Tory. 

"  The  French  Revolution  and  the  changes  made 
by  the  movements  of  Napoleon  I,  including  the  re 
moval  of  the  Bourbon  from  the  throne  of  Spain, 
reduced  the  prestige  of  Spanish  rule  in  Mexico  and 
seriously  lessened  the  power  of  the  viceroys.  This 
was  intensified  when  the  emperor  placed  his  brother 
on  the  Spanish  throne,  thus  giving  a  heavy  shock 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  *  divine  right  of  kings  '  and 
the  immutability  of  established  order,  and  raising 
hopes  that  changes  in  the  interests  of  liberty  and 
right  were  to  be  expected  and  welcomed,  and,  if  need 
be,  fought  for,  by  those  who  appreciated  the  sen 
timent,  '  Who  would  be  free  himself  must  strike  the 
blow.'  The  spirit  of  liberty  became  infectious,  and 
was  strengthened  by  the  Constitution  granted  by 
the  new  Cortes  of  Spain  in  1812,  which  abolished 
the  Inquisition  and  gave  to  Mexico  more  freedom 
than  she  had  known  since  the  conquest.  But  the 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.   245 

viceroy  was  a  true  absolutist,  and  had  no  heart  to 
welcome  the  beneficent  change,  and  longed  for  its 
overthrow.  The  fall  of  Napoleon  was  followed  by 
the  removal  of  his  brother  and  the  change  of  the 
liberal  regimen  in  Spain.  Ferdinand  VII,  who  was 
restored  to  the  throne  by  the  policy  of  the  '  allied 
powers,'  who  met  in  Paris  to  reconstruct  the  map 
of  Europe,  was  one  of  the  most  despotic  of  the 
Bourbons. 

"  He  abolished  the  Constitution,  restored  the  In 
quisition  and  absolute  government,  and  once  more 
oppressed  the  inhabitants  of  the  Spanish  peninsula. 
Stern  orders  were  sent  to  withdraw  all  that  had 
been  conceded  to  the  people  of  Mexico. 

"Fearing  the  progress  of  the  liberal  ideas  in  that 
country  as  well  as  in  the  South  American  colonies, 
Ferdinand  was  intending  to  dispatch  a  fleet  and 
army  to  bring  Mexico  and  South  American  colo 
nies  again  into  submission.  Before  it  was  ready  to 
sail  the  discovery  was  made  that  many  of  the  offi 
cers  had  become  infected  with  this  *  new  fever  of 
liberty/  and  even  dared  to  express  their  displeasure 
at  the  service  demanded  of  them,  and  were,  indeed, 
more  likely  to  lead  the  revolt  in  Mexico  than  to  sup 
press  it.  None  others  could  take  their  places,  and 
Ferdinand  and  his  clerical  sympathizers  were  openly 
criticised  for  their  despotic  plans  till,  alarmed  for 


246  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  stability  of  his  throne,  the  Constitution  was  re 
stored  and  the  hostile  expedition  to  Mexico  aban 
doned."  * 

The  cradle  of  Mexican  independence  was  the  cen 
tral  State  of  Guanajuato.  Here  the  leaven  of  liberty 
had  been  working  for  some  time  in  a  little  town 
called  Dolores,  about  twenty-five  miles  from  the 
State  capital,  and  a  great  mining  center.  The  cu 
rate  of  this  town  was  Miguel  Hidalgo  y  Costilla,  a 
name  worthy  of  lasting  honor  as  of  one  who  gave 
his  life  to  his  country  and  "  who  sacrified  himself 
for  the  right  as  against  injustice  and  oppression." 
He  had  already  reached  the  age — about  sixty — when 
most  men  seek  rest  from  life's  burdens.  And  yet  he 
voluntarily  placed  his  shoulders  under  the  burdens 
of  a  nation  while  many  thought  the  time  not  yet 
ripe. 

This  "  Washington  "  of  his  country  is  described 
by  Bancroft  as  follows  :  "  His  heart  was  kind  and 
sympathetic  ;  his  manner  soft  and  winning ;  his 
voice  sonorous,  vibrating,  and  most  pleasing  to  the 
ear,  and  his  deportment  was  natural  and  attractive. 
He  had  the  true  scholarly  stoop,  and  in  all  his  fea 
tures,  air,  and  attitude  a  profoundly  meditative  ex 
pression — a  fitting  incarnation  of  a  great  soul  bathed 
in  settled  calm.  Yet  the  clear,  black,  brilliant  eyes 

*  Mexico  in  Transition,  William  Butler,  D.D.,  p.  65. 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.   24; 

betrayed  the  activity  of  the  mind,  and  through 
them  shone  the  light  from  the  burning  fires  with 
in."* 

This  kind  and  sympathetic  curate,  like  a  father 
to  his  flock,  was  interested  in  everything  related  to 
their  temporal  and  spiritual  welfare.  So  he  taught 
them,  among  other  things,  grape  culture  and  to 
raise  silkworms,  and  he  also  built  a  porcelain  factory. 
But  these  innocent  occupations,  likely  to  improve 
their  temporal  condition,  thought  at  the  time  to  cut 
off  so  much  revenue  from  the  home  government, 
proved  too  much  for  the  viceroy.  So  special  agents 
were  dispatched  speedily  to  Dolores,  and  the  worthy 
curate  stood  helplessly  by  while  every  mulberry 
tree  was  cut  down  and  every  vine  torn  up.  Hidalgo 
had  been  for  some  time  in  secret  correspondence 
with  Allende,  Aldama,  and  other  patriots  in  the 
city  of  Queretaro,  under  the  guise  of  a  literary 
academy,  where  they  were  greatly  helped  by  one 
Miguel  Dominguezand  his  estimable  wife,  Dona  Jo- 
sefa  Maria  Ortiz.  To  this  intelligent  and  patriotic 
woman  was  due  the  success  of  many  early  move 
ments  when  the  cause  seemed  weak.  Noble  women 
in  State  and  Church  have  often  lent  inspiration 
and  direction  to  worthy  causes  in  trying  hours. 

The  cruel  destruction  of  his  industry  thoroughly 

*  Bancroft's    Works,  vol.  xii,  p.  104. 


248  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

aroused  the  curate  and  his  neighbors  for  many  miles 
around.  Indeed,  the  indignation  spread  far  and 
wide,  like  the  echo  from  the  Boston  Tea  Party  of 
1776.  The  members  of  the  Literary  Academy  in 
Quere"taro,  and  other  sympathizers  throughout  the 
land,  concluded  that  the  time  to  strike  had  come. 
On  the  night  of  the  I5th  of  September,  of  the  year 
already  referred  to,  Hidalgo,  in  the  public  square  of 
Dolores,  raised  his  Grito,  "  Viva  la  Independencia, 
Muera  el  Gobierno."  This  was  afterward  changed 
to  "  Mueran  los  Gachupines,"  *  and  a  few  days  later 
at  Atotonilco  were  added  the  words,  "  Viva  la  Vir- 
gen  de  Guadalupe."f 

The  workmen  in  Hidalgo's  two  factories  were 
forewarned  and  soon  appeared  with  arms  in  hand. 
The  nineteen  Spanish  residents  of  the  town  were 
put  under  arrest.  As  dawn  approached  the  church 
bell  was  rung  that  Sunday  morning  at  an  earlier 
hour  than  usual,  the  first  tolling  of  Mexico's  liberty 
bell.  The  townspeople  gathered,  and  at  a  late  hour 
the  people  flocked  in  from  the  neighboring  farms. 
The  faithful  pastor  of  many  years  had  a  new  and 
novel  text,  "  Deliverance  was  demanded,  and  from 
the  evil  one ;  but  it  was  from  Satan  in  the  flesh, 
from  devils  incarnate  as  temporal  masters,  inflicting 

*  A  contemptuous  name  for  the  Spaniards. 

\  Mexico  A   Traves  de  los  Sighs,  vol.  iii,  p.  107. 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.   249 

wrongs  and  injuries  and  infamies  without  number."* 
As  the  curate  entered  the  pulpit  and  looked  on  the 
sea  of  upturned  anxious  faces  he  said,  "  My  dear 
children,  this  day  comes  to  us  a  new  dispensation. 
Are  you  ready  to  receive  it?  Will  you  be  free? 
Will  you  make  the  effort  to  recover  from  the  hated 
Spaniards  the  lands  stolen  from  your  forefathers 
three  hundred  years  ago?  " 

This  was  the  first  public  speech  of  the  Revolution, 
and  it  was  the  last  made  by  this  pastor  to  his  flock 
at  Dolores.  Like  loving  children,  terribly  in  earnest, 
they  followed  their  spiritual  guide  and  their  patri 
otic  leader  out  of  town  that  morning,  about  six 
hundred  strong.  Lances,  machetes,  clubs,  slings, 
bows,  and  arrows,  were  their  chief  weapons — of  fire 
arms  they  had  but  few.  At  San  Miguel  Allende 
their  number  rose  to  four  thousand,  and  a  supply  of 
munitions  of  war  was  secured.  On  the  i8th,  just 
two  days  after  the  "Grito,"  as  they  marched  out 
of  San  Miguel  the  forces  numbered  ten  thousand; 
on  the  2 1st  they  reached  Queretaro,  and  a  few  days 
later  entered  Celaya  with  an  army  of  fifty  thousand. 
Here  Hidalgo  was  elected  captain  general  amid  the 
wild  enthusiasm  of  his  followers.  On  the  morning  of 
the  28th  they  approached  the  city  of  Guanajuato, 
were  joined  by  a  considerable  army  of  miners,  and 

*  Bancroft's  Works,  vol.  xii,  p.  117. 


250  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

after  four  hours'  struggle  they  took  the  city.  With 
it  fell  into  their  hands  additional  munitions  of  war 
and  about  one  million  dollars  found  in  the  State 
treasury.  Soon  after  Valladolid,  Guadalajara,  and 
other  cities  were  in  their  possession.  The  wonder 
ful  success  attending  Hidalgo's  movements  threw 
consternation  into  the  government  camp  at  the 
national  capital.  The  viceroy,  knowing  the  power 
of  money,  offered  ten  thousand  dollars  for  the 
body  of  Hidalgo  "  dead  or  alive."  Anathemas  and 
excommunications  were  hurled  by  the  archbishop 
against  Hidalgo  and  his  associates,  and,  thinking  to 
cap  the  climax,  the  rector  of  the  university  publicly 
announced  the  fact  that  "  Hidalgo  was  not  a  doctor 
of  divinity." 

Notwithstanding  all  this  Hidalgo  turned  his  face 
toward  Mexico  city,  evidently  disposed  to  "  beard 
the  lion  in  his  den."  His  forces  constantly  grew  in 
number  till,  when  he  reached  Las  Cruces,  a  high 
eminence  overlooking  the  beautiful  valley  of  Mex 
ico,  there  were  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  men, 
women,  and  children  following  his  little  banner.  At 
his  feet  lay  the  national  capital,  all  important  to 
him  and  to  his  cause.  But,  looking  around  him,  he 
saw  an  immense  rabble  without  discipline  and  with 
out  the  necessary  munitions  of  war,  while  the  capi 
tal  was  defended  by  a  royal  garrison  with  the  best 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.    251 

armaments  of  the  times  and  well-disciplined  men. 
Hidalgo  realized  it  was  more  the  part  of  prudence 
to  defer  the  attack  till  he  was  better  prepared.  So 
he  turned  his  army  northward  and  intended  to  push 
on  toward  our  frontier  in  the  hope  of  purchasing 
arms  and  ammunition,  and  at  the  same  time  drill  his 
raw  army.  He  was  soon  overtaken  by  the  Royalists, 
who  seriously  damaged  his  forces,  although  most  of 
them  kept  together  till  they  reached  Saltillo  early 
in  1811.  Here  he  left  General  Rayon  in  charge 
while,  with  a  small  escort,  he  pushed  on  toward 
Texas  in  search  of  the  much-needed  military  equip 
ment,  and  possibly  in  the  hope  of  securing  aid  from 
the  new  and  patriotic  republic  north  of  the  Rio 
Grande. 

About  this  time  Hidalgo  received  a  letter  from  the 
viceroy  offering  pardon  in  case  he  and  his  would 
lay  down  their  arms.  To  this  he  replied  :  "  We 
will  not  lay  aside  our  arms  until  we  have  wrested 
the  jewel  of  liberty  from  the  hands  of  the  oppres 
sor.  .  .  .  Pardon,  your  excellency,  is  for  criminals, 
not  for  defenders  of  their  country." 

A  few  days  later  this  noble  patriot  was  betrayed 
by  a  miserable  traitor  named  Elizondo,  who  handed 
him  over  to  the  Spaniards.  After  being  kept  in 
prison  for  three  months  he  was  tried  by  an  ec 
clesiastical  court.  On  July  29  he  was  degraded  from 


252  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  priesthood,  handed  over  to  the  secular  court, 
and  on  the  morning  of  the  3 1st  was  shot,  his 
companions  in  arms,  Allende,  Aldama,  and  Jimenez, 
having  been  shot  a  few  days  before.  The  heads  of 
all  four  were  placed  on  long  poles  arid  elevated  on 
the  corners  of  the  Alhondiga  en  Guanajuato,  and 
their  bodies  interred  in  the  Chapel  of  San  Francisco. 
After  the  triumph  of  the  revolution  in  1823  an  ap 
preciative  national  congress  ordered  the  bodies  and 
the  skulls  removed  and  reinterred  with  solemn 
honors  beneath  the  "Altar  of  the  Three  Kings," 
under  the  dome  of  the  cathedral  in  the  capital. 
Well  does  the  author  of  Mexico  in  Transition  re 
mark  that : 

"  Certainly  Hidalgo  could  not  have  dreamed  of 
the  glorious  part  which  his  tattered  flag  should  bear 
in  the  future.  Year  by  year,  on  the  eve  of 
September  16,  the  highest  national  holiday,  at  II 
o'clock  P.  M.,  in  the  Hall  of  Representatives,  the 
president,  his  cabinet,  and  the  members  of  Congress, 
public  men  of  Mexico,  with  all  the  brilliancy  of 
society  in  the  capital,  crowd  the  structure  and  wait 
for  the  moment  when  the  hands  of  the  clock  reach 
the  hour  at  which  Hidalgo  first  raised  the  cry  of 
independence.  Then  the  President  of  Mexico  raises 
the  old  flag,  waves  it  three  times,  and  repeats  the 
Grito  :  '  Viva  la  Libertad  !  Viva  la  Republica ! 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.    253 

Viva  Mexico  ! '  and  the  great  audience  rises  to  join 
in  the  shout,  *  Viva  la  Republica  ! '  as  if  they  would 
lift  the  roof  off  the  building.  The  thunder  of  the 
artillery  gives  its  response  to  the  popular  joy,  and 
more  than  three  hundred  thousand  people  in  the 
capital,  and,  indeed,  the  whole  nation,  remember 
gratefully  the  man  who  died  to  make  them  free."* 

His  fellow-countrymen  have  gratefully  embalmed 
his  memory,  "  and  his  name,  growing  brighter  and 
brighter  as  the  ages  pass,  will  be  handed  down  un 
sullied  to  remotest  generations."  f 

The  leader  was  dead,  but  not  the  cause.  Martyrs 
never  help  the  opposite  side.  After  Hidalgo's 
death  the  command  devolved  upon  Morelos  and 
Rayon.  The  former,  an  old  friend  and  student  of 
Hidalgo,  soon  became  immensely  popular,  and  came 
to  be  known  as  "  the  hero  of  a  hundred  battles." 
The  army  recovered  speedily  from  the  fall  of  its 
former  leaders,  and  increased  in  numbers  and  mul 
tiplied  its  victories.  From  the  Royalists  whole 
companies  and  regiments  passed  over  to  the  stand 
ard  of  the  Republicans.  The  Bravos,  Victoria, 
Bustamante,  Guerrero,  and  others  soon  joined  the 
patriot  ranks. 

In  October,  1814,  a  Constitution  was  proclaimed, 

*  Mexico  in  Transition,  p.  10, 
f  Bancroft,  vol.  xii,  p.  286. 


254  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

having  been  prepared  by  a  congress  called  for  the 
purpose  by  Morelos,  and  which  met  inChilpancingo. 
The  custody  of  this  national  body  cost  the  general 
his  life.  The  viceroy  ordered  that  "the  insurgents 
should  be  pursued,  incarcerated,  and  killed  like  wild 
beasts."  The  Republicans,  on  the  contrary,  acted 
with  magnanimity  toward  their  ememy.  Let  the 
following  serve  as  an  illustration  :  In  the  ranks  of 
the  Republicans  were  two  generals  named  Bravo— 
father  and  son.  The  father  was  taken  a  prisoner  at 
Cauatla,  tried,  and  condemned  to  die.  The  viceroy, 
knowing  his  value  as  a  soldier,  offered  him  his  life 
if  he  would  induce  his  son  and  his  brothers  to  join 
the  Royalists,  but  this  offer  was  spurned.  He  pre 
ferred  to  die  for  his  country  than  to  live  with  its 
oppressors.  While  he  was  a  prisoner  the  junior 
Bravo  captured  three  hundred  Spanish  soldiers  and 
offered  them  to  the  viceroy  as  a  ransom  for  his 
father.  Some  of  them  were  officers  from  Spain, 
and  others  wealthy  hacendados;  but  the  viceroy 
rejected  the  offer  and  ordered  the  father  executed. 
On  hearing  this  the  son  was  overwhelmed  with 
grief,  and  he  immediately  ordered  his  three  hundred 
prisoners  shot.  They  were  allowed  religious  counsel 
and  told  to  prepare  for  execution  on  the  following 
morning.  On  reflection,  however,  he  concluded 
that  their  execution  would  be  a  dishonor  to  the 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.    255 

cause  of  independence,  however  the  world  might 
justify  it  on  military  grounds,  so  he  determined  on 
his  course.  The  next  morning  early  the  three 
hundred  men  were  drawn  up  in  line  in  front  of  the 
army,  all  ready  for  the  fatal  order.  When  the  time  for 
giving  the  order  arrived  Bravo  rode  out  to  the  front 
and  thus  addressed  the  condemned  men : 

"  Your  lives  are  forfeited.  Your  master,  Spain's 
minion,  has  murdered  my  father,  murdered  him  in 
cold  blood  for  choosing  Mexico  and  liberty  be 
fore  Spain  and  her  tyrannies.  Some  of  you  are 
fathers,  and  may  imagine  what  my  father  felt  in 
being  thrust  from  the  world  without  one  farewell 
word  from  his  son  ;  aye,  and  your  sons  may  feel  a 
portion  of  that  anguish  of  soul  which  fills  my  heart 
as  thoughts  arise  of  my  father's  wrongs  and  cruel 
death.  And  what  a  master  is  this  of  yours !  For 
one  life,  my  poor  father's,  he  might  have  saved  you 
all,  and  would  not !  So  deadly  is  his  hate  that  he 
would  sacrifice  three  hundred  of  his  friends  rather 
than  forego  this  one  sweet  morsel  of  vengeance. 
Even  I,  who  am  no  viceroy,  have  three  hundred 
lives  for  my  father's.  But  there  is  a  nobler  revenge 
than  this.  Go  !  You  are  all  free !  Go  find  your 
vile  master,  and  henceforth  serve  him  if  you  can  !  " 

No  wonder  it  is  said  that  "  the  effect  was  over 
whelming."  The  entire  number,  "  with  tears  stream- 


256  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

ing  from  their  eyes  rushed  forward  and  offered  their 
services  to  his  cause,  and  remained  faithful  to  him 
and  to  it  to  the  very  end." 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  difficulties  and  perplexities 
of  the  situation  in  Mexico  at  this  time  have  ever 
been  fully  appreciated  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  struggle  for  independence  theirs  was  a  much 
greater  task  than  ours.  "  When  our  patriot  fathers 
here  pledged  *  life  and  fortune  and  sacred  honor,' 
to  become  independent  and  free,  they  had  not  been 
for  three  hundred  years  crushed  down  in  ignorance 
and  poverty,  almost  without  hope  or  aspiration. 
No  powerful  viceroy  wielding  the  military  forces  of 
a  foreign  despot  was  in  power  to  repress  every  utter 
ance  for  liberty,  or  '  to  hunt  them  down  like  beasts 
of  prey*  when  they  attempted  to  obtain  it.  No 
great  landed  aristocracy,  owning  every  acre  of  the 
soil,  laid  its  heavy  hand  upon  them  in  vengeance. 
No  wealthy  established  Church  united  its  ghostly 
power  with  civil  despotism  to  repress  them,  bring 
ing  to  its  aid  the  remorseless  Inquisition  and  its 
spiritual  maledictions,  adding  blasphemously  the 
terrors  of  God  and  of  eternity  to  crush  their  cause 
and  their  hopes  as  unlawful.  Nor  were  they  cut  off 
from  the  sea  and  its  resources,  or  left  without  one 
friendly  nation  on  the  earth  to  extend  sympathy  or 
a  helping  hand  to  them  in  the  unequal  struggle, 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.  257 

nor  so  destitute  of  resources  that  they  had  to  win 
battles  to  obtain  weapons  and  ammunition  to  con 
tinue  the  conflict.  All  that  they  had  to  begin  with 
were  their  own  right  hands  and  noble  leaders,  who 
Moved  not  their  lives  unto  the  death,' to  make 
their  nation  a  land  of  liberty."  * 

Besides,  in  all  their  territory  there  was  no  com 
mon  school,  no  elementary  literature,  and  no  Bible. 
Doubtful  indeed  it  is  if  any  people  ever  won  consti 
tutional  liberty  against  greater  odds.  But  the 
United  States  set  them  the  example  twenty-five 
years  before,  and  our  admiration  for  their  persistent 
and  brave  effort  cannot  be  too  great.  Had  there 
been  no  historic  Washington  there  would  have 
been  no  historic  Hidalgo. 

After  the  events  now  described  the  revolution 
spread  until  the  entire  country  was  one  great  field  of 
commotion,  no  great  battle  anywhere,  but  local  up 
risings  on  every  hand. 

In  1820,  when  it  was  thought  by  some  that  possi 
bly  Ferdinand  VII,  now  restored  to  Spain,  due  to 
the  disturbances  in  Europe,  might  seek  a  more  quiet 
throne  m  Mexico,  many  liberals  were  led,  by  the 
hope  of  obtaining  constitutional  liberty,  to  consent 
to  a  temporary  cessation  of  hostilities,  especially  as 
the  home  government  saw  fit  to  remove  the  despotic 

*  Mexico  in  Transition. 
18 


258  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

viceroy  and  put  in  his  place  a  more  considerate 
one.  Iturbide,  commander  of  the  Royalist  army  in 
the  southwest,  issued  the  Plan  of  Iguala,  or  the  Con 
stitution  of  the  Three  Guarantees — religion,  inde 
pendence,  and  union.  Roman  Catholicism  was  to 
be  the  national  religion,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
others;  independence  from  Spain  was  to  be  had; 
and  a  union,  with  equal  rights  for  all  classes  of  people. 
The  masses  at  first  regarded  it  with  favor,  but  the 
more  intelligent  leaders  concluded  that  it  smacked 
too  much  of  Rome.  The  new  viceroy  and  Iturbide 
met  in  August  of  that  year  and  discussed  the  situa 
tion,  and  the  former  accepted  with  few  modifica 
tions,  the  Plan  of  Iguala,  agreeing  himself  to  become 
a  member  of  the  Provisional  Junta  till  Ferdinand 
should  arrive.  But  Ferdinand  decided  not  to  come, 
as  did  also  the  crown  princes  of  Spain,  and  the 
whole  plan  failed.  The  viceroy  died  suddenly,  and 
the  ambitious  Iturbide  was  virtually  master  of  the 
situation.  The  first  article  of  his  plan  declared, 
"  The  Mexican  nation  is  independent  of  the  Span 
ish  nation,  and  of  every  other,  even  on  its  own 
continent." 

Spain  was  too  much  engaged  with  internal  and 
continental  disturbances  at  home  to  make  more 
than  a  formal  protest.  But  no  more  blood  was 
shed,  and  on  February  24,  1821,  the  Spanish  flag 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.  259 

which  had  floated  for  just  three  hundred  years  in 
the  balmy  air  of  New  Spain  was  hauled  down,  the 
Mexican  tricolor  floated  over  the  liberated  land, 
and  the  United  States  of  Mexico  began  their  inde 
pendent  national  life,  the  legitimate  result  of  the 
life  and  sacrifices  of  Miguel  Hidalgo;  a  result  that 
cost  the  nation  thousands  of  lives  and  rivers  of  blood. 
Iturbide  and  Guerrero  had  joined  forces  to  bring 
about  the  final  result ;  and  had  the  former  been 
more  of  a  patriot  and  less  of  a  churchman  he  might 
have  been  elected  president  of  the  new  republic. 
His  ambition,  however,  was  not  for  his  country,  but 
for  himself;  and  when,  on  May  22,  1822,  by  the 
aid  of  the  yet  dominant  Church  party,  he  managed 
to  have  himself  proclaimed  Augustine  I,  Emperor 
of  Mexico,  he  did  not  realize  that  by  that  act  he 
had  lost  his  hold  on  the  best  people  of  the  nation. 
This,  however,  he  soon  after  did  realize,  and  then 
tendered  his  resignation.  His  resignation  was  not 
accepted,  but  he  was  exiled  and  promised  to  live 
abroad.  Attempting  to  return  about  fourteen 
months  later,  he  was  arrested  on  landing  and 
executed.  His  only  son  went  to  the  United  States 
for  his  education,  and  then  married.  To  him  was 
born  one  son,  who  to  this  day  is  spoken  of  by  the 
Church  party  as  Prince  Augustine,  but  whose  every 
move  is  watched  by  the  liberal  party. 


260  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

About  this  time  Santa  Ana  first  prominently  ap 
peared  on  the  scene  by  pronouncing  against  Itur- 
bide.  Some  Republican  leaders,  believing  Santa 
Ana  to  be  honest  in  his  liberal  professions,  joined 
him.  After  the  fall  of  Iturbide's  empire  General 
Victoria  was  chosen  president,  and  a  Constitution 
adopted  modeled  after  ours,  save  in  the  one  proviso 
of  religious  liberty. 

Spain's  spasmodic  and  futile  efforts  in  1829  to 
regain  possession  of  Mexico,  by  sending  General  Bar- 
randas  with  a  small  army,  only  intensified  native 
hatred  toward  all  Spaniards,  and  came  near  result 
ing  in  their  complete  exile  from  the  country. 

Perhaps  no  public  man  did  more  to  postpone 
Mexico's  complete  freedom  than  did  Antonio 
Lopez  de  Santa  Ana.  His  own  people  never 
knew  where  to  find  him,  yet  "  his  clerical  patrons 
knew  well  how  to  utilize  his  remarkable  qualities, 
though  it  must  be  confessed  that  his  eye  to  the 
main  chance  was  always  as  keenly  open  for  his  own 
advantage  as  for  the  promotion  of  their  purposes." 
He  was  ruler  of  his  country  on  five  different  occa 
sions,  and  helped  to  depose  about  a  score  from  the 
same  high  position.  His  relations  to  Texas  gave 
Americans  an  opportunity  to  hear  much — and 
especially  much  that  was  bad — about  this  notori 
ous  character.  Perhaps  no  one's  opinion  of  Santa 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.  261 

Ana  was  as  elevated  as  his  own,  for  to  himself  he 
was  a  great  hero.  When  he  was  captured  by  Gen 
eral  Houston  he  had  the  audacity  to  remark  to  the 
general,  "  You  are  born  to  no  common  destiny  who 
are  the  conqueror  of  the  '  Napoleon  of  the  South.'  ' 
As  far  back  as  we  can  remember  in  early  school 
days  we  recall  pictures  of  this  remarkable  man  in 
our  text-books,  and  then  can  remember  vividly  how 
twenty  years  ago  this  coming  summer  we  sat  by  his 
side  in  the  city  of  Mexico  and  heard  from  the  lips 
of  the  feeble  old  man  some  of  the  events  of  his 
checkered  and  stormy  life. 

A  most  interesting  account  of  the  strange  and 
pompous  burial  of  his  "  Christian  leg,"  shot  off  by  a 
French  cannon  ball,  of  his  assumption  of  dictatorial 
powers,  his  rupture  with  the  archbishop,  the  deser 
tion  of  his  own  followers,  the  mob  that  disinterred 
his  poor  leg  and  kicked  it  through  the  streets  of 
the  city,  and  the  subsequent  events  of  a  career 
without  parallel,  together  with  an  excellent  portrait 
of  the  turbulent  dictator,  may  be  found  in  Dr. 
William  Butler's  Mexico  in  Transition. 

Santa  Ana's  expedition  to  Texas  was  a  failure, 
and  the  "  Lone  Star  "  asked  for  admission  to  the 
United  States  after  ten  years  of  independence.  The 
final  result  was  one  of  the  most  unrighteous  wars 
ever  waged.  A  war  it  was  against  which  some  of 


262  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

our  best  statesmen  protested,  and  which  was  con 
demned  in  unqualified  terms  by  the  voice  and  pen 
of  our  lamented  General  Grant.  In  his  Memoirs  he 
says: 

"  The  presence  of  the  United  States  troops  on 
the  edge  of  the  disputed  territory  farthest  from 
the  Mexican  settlements  was  not  sufficient  to  pro 
voke  hostilities.  We  were  sent  to  provoke  a  fight, 
but  it  was  essential  that  Mexico  should  commence 
it.  It  was  very  doubtful  whether  Congress  would 
declare  war,  but  if  Mexico  should  attack  our  troops 
the  executive  could  announce,  *  Whereas,  war  ex 
ists  by  the  acts  of,'  etc.,  and  prosecute  the  contest 
with  vigor  "  (Vol.  i,  p.  67). 

"  The  occupation,  separation,  and  annexation 
were,  from  the  inception  of  the  movement  to  its 
final  consummation,  a  conspiracy  to  acquire  territory 
out  of  which  slave  States  might  be  formed  for  the 
American  Union.  Even  if  the  annexation  itself 
could  be  justified  the  manner  in  which  the  subse 
quent  war  was  forced  upon  Mexico  cannot.  The 
fact  is,  annexationists  wanted  more  territory  than 
they  could  possibly  lay  any  claim  to  as  part  of  the 
new  acquisition.  Texas,  as  an  independent  State, 
never  had  exercised  jurisdiction  over  the  territory 
between  the  Nueces  River  and  the  Rio  Grande. 
Mexico  had  never  recognized  the  independence  of 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.  263 

Texas,  and  maintained  that,  even  if  independent, 
the  State  had  no  claim  south  of  the  Nueces " 
(Vol.  i,  p.  54). 

The  Southern  representatives  in  our  national 
Congress  hoped  thus  to  secure  a  territory  out  of 
which  nine  slave  States  could  be  carved  equal  in 
extent  to  the  State  of  Kentucky,  as  said  Senator 
Benton,  of  Missouri,  in  his  famous  speech,  while  Mr. 
Wise,  of  Virginia,  added  :  "  Slavery  should  pour  it 
self  abroad  without  restraint,  and  find  no  limit  but 
the  Southern  ocean."* 

Great  Britain  had  in  1829  offered  $5,000,000 
simply  to  take  Texas  under  her  protection.  Our 
minister  at  Mexico,  Mr.  Poinsett,  offered  a  like  sum 
or  a  loan  of  $10,000,000.  Mr.  William  Jay,  in  his 
Review  of  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  the  Mexi 
can  War  (Boston,  1849),  shows  conclusively,  we 
think,  how  the  government  at  Washington  from 
this  time  forward  pursued  precisely  the  policy  that 
provoked  Mexico  to  declare  war.  Such  a  course 
with  a  weaker  neighbor,  and  with  the  nefarious 
purpose  of  acquiring  more  territory,  in  order  that 
the  awful  crime  of  human  slavery  might  be  perpetu 
ated  on  the  American  continent,  was  a  crime  perhaps 
without  equal  in  the  history  of  any  Christian  nation. 
The  calamity  which  followed  a  few  years  later  in  con- 

*  Jay's  Review,  p.  80. 


264  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

nection  with  the  same  inhuman  question  would  seem 
like  a  just  dispensation  from  "  the  God  of  all  the 
earth,"  who  could  look  with  "  no  degree  of  allow 
ance  "  upon  such  a  wicked  institution  as  slavery. 
Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  Mexico,  having 
herself  abolished  slavery  in  1829,  at  the  instance 
of  the  immortal  Hidalgo,  protested  against  the 
desecration  of  Texan  territory  by  Southern  slave 
holders. 

The  largest  map  of  the  United  States  known  to 
exist  is  not  found  in  our  colleges,  but  it  hangs  in 
the  library  of  the  Propaganda  in  Rome.  On  it  the 
pope  has  marked,  for  many  long  years  past,  the 
march  of  civilization  on  our  peerless  Western  con 
tinent.  It  is  said  that  every  town  or  village  in  our 
country  is  constantly  in  evidence  before  this  keen 
student  of  geography  and  history.  In  the  early  for 
ties  California,  no  doubt,  was  a  study  of  unusual 
interest  to  the  pope  and  the  Propaganda.  Great 
Britain  was  also  interested,  as  naturally  were  the 
United  States.  A  race  was  made  for  the  prize. 
Dr.  Ellinwood,  Secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board 
of  Missions,  in  an  article  published  in  the  New  York 
Evangelist  (June  30,  1887),  tells  how  one  Father 
McNamara,  an  Irish  Romanist  in  California,  wrote 
a  letter  to  the  President  of  Mexico  asking  for  a  con 
cession  to  plant  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  San  Joa- 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.  265 

quin  a  colony  of  Irish  Catholics.  His  letter,  which 
was  intercepted,  reads  as  follows  : 

"  I  have  a  triple  object  in  my  proposal.  I  wish, 
first,  to  advance  the  cause  of  Catholicism  ;  second, 
to  promote  the  happiness  and  thrift  of  my  country 
men  ;  and,  thirdly,  to  put  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
the  further  usurpations  of  that  irreligious  and  anti- 
Catholic  nation,  the  United  States.  And  if  the 
plan  which  I  propose  be  not  speedily  adopted,  your 
excellency  may  be  assured  that  before  another  year 
the  Californians  will  form  a  part  of  the  American 
nation,  the  Catholic  institutions  will  become  the 
prey  of  the  Methodist  wolves,  and  the  whole  coun 
try  will  be  inundated  with  cruel  invaders." 

We  might  remark,  parenthetically,  that  the 
"  Methodist  wolves"  did  get  there,  and  that  one  of 
the  honored  founders  of  Syracuse  University,  Jesse 
T.  Peck,  was  of  the  first  to  arrive,  and  a  very  good 
specimen  he  was  of  the  flock  which  has  been  pour 
ing  in  ever  since.  Records  in  the  State  Department 
at  Washington  confirm  the  truth  of  the  McNamara 
incident.  True,  the  McNamara  grant  of  land  was 
made,  but  the  British  Admiral  Seymour  arrived 
too  late  to  back  the  claim,  and  on  the  very  day  the 
grant  was  made  General  Fremont  ran  up  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  at  Monterey,  and  thus  secured  the  great 
gold  State  to  the  American  Union,  One  year  later 


266  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

(February  2,  1848)  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo 
closed  the  Mexican  War,  and  our  government 
paid  $18,250,000  for  California,  a  tithe,  however,  of 
what  it  was  worth. 

Two  occurrences  during  the  Mexican  War  should 
have  special  mention.  On  these  two  occasions,  at 
least,  at  Monterey  and  Cherubusco,  Irish  soldiers 
in  the  American  army,  when  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  enemy,  deserted  the  Stars  and  Stripes  and 
passed  over  into  the  ranks  of  the  Mexicans  rather 
than  fight  against  Roman  Catholics.  They  were 
Irish  emigrants  who  had  gone  into  the  war  for  pay — 
who  received  month  after  month  the  American  dol 
lar,  but  when  the  emergency  came,  at  the  mandate 
of  a  Catholic  priest,  they  turned  their  backs  on 
the  flag  they  had  sworn  to  defend.  Let  Americans 
remember  this  is  what  Rome  may  do  for  them  in 
an  emergency.  At  Cherubusco,  the  second  place 
named,  nearly  two  hundred  such  Irish  Catholics  de 
serted  and  then  turned  their  bayonets  on  their  fel 
low-countrymen.  Their  treachery  aided  the  enemy 
in  entailing  upon  our  forces  its  greatest  loss  during 
the  entire  war,  namely,  one  thousand  killed  and 
wounded,  one  seventh  of  the  entire  force.  This 
reminds  us  of  the  startling  fact  recently  published 
by  Dr.  R.  S.  MacArthur,  of  New  York  city,  that, 
during  our  late  rebellion  seventy-two  per  cent  of  all 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.^^/ 

desertions  from  the  Union  army  were  Irishmen,  and 
that  these  desertions  began  just  after  the  pope  rec 
ognized  the  Confederacy.* 

Let  Americans  remember  that  in  the  defense  of 
their  republican  liberties  neither  nihilists,  anarchists, 
revolutionary  socialists,  nor  Roman  Catholics  can 
be  fully  depended  upon.  The  latter  will  obey  their 
priests  quicker  than  their  conscience  or  their  civil 
ruler,  for  they  are  Romanists  first  and  Americans 
after.  It  is  a  thought  which  may  well  give  us  some 
concern,  with  these  facts  before  us,  that  all  over 
this  fair  land,  living  under  the  protection  of  its 
laws,  enjoying  every  immunity  common  to  our  peo 
ple,  are  thousands  of  men  who  would  this  very  day 
lay  down  their  lives  to  obey  the  orders  which  come 
to  them  from  the  Tiber  rather  than  those  which 
come  to  them  from  the  capital  on  the  Potomac  ;  and 
who  can  tell  but  that  Satolli  is  now  instructing  them 
how  to  do  it?  "  Put  none  but  Americans  on  guard 
to-night  "  may  be  as  necessary  a  precaution  in  days 
to  come  as  it  has  been  in  days  that  are  passed. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  Mexico  was  a  land 
without  the  Bible  and  without  the  common  school. 
However  unrighteous  may  have  been  the  action  of 
our  government  in  waging  war  with  our  next-door 
neighbors,  God  always  knows  how  to  make  even 

*  New   York  Tribune,  quoted  in  Pittsburg  Advocate, 


26%*  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  mistakes,  as  well  as  "  the  wrath  of  man  to 
praise  him."  When  our  army  marched  from  the 
Rio  Grande  to  the  interior  of  the  country  colpor 
teurs  of  the  American  Bible  and  American  Tract 
Societies  followed  everywhere  in  their  wake,  and 
under  the  protection  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes  hun 
dreds  of  copies  of  the  word  of  God  and  thousands 
of  little  tracts  bearing  the  promise  of  salvation  were 
scattered  everywhere,  like  white-winged  messengers 
of  peace.  A  few  of  the  priests  and  hundreds  of  the 
people  received  them  gladly.  As  soon  as  the  war 
was  over  many  of  these  Bibles  and  tracts  were 
gathered  up  and  destroyed  by  order  of  the  Church. 
But  enough  of  them  remained  to  be  considered  the 
first  "  seed  sowing  "  of  the  glorious  harvest  now 
being  gathered.  Missionaries  now  moving  about 
the  country  frequently  find  little  groups  who  had 
secretly  guarded  the  sacred  treasure  till  the  Bible 
burners  ceased  to  have  the  upper  hand  in  the  coun 
try,  and  they  were  able  to  bring  forth  the  Scriptures 
for  the  light  and  joy  of  little  circles  which,  in  many 
cases,  rapidly  developed  into  evangelical  churches. 
On  one  occasion,  when  traveling  in  the  hot  country, 
and  passing  through  a  cornfield,  we  were  arrested 
by  the  voice  of  song.  Following  the  sound  of  a  fa 
miliar  tune  for  a  short  distance,  we  soon  found  our 
selves  in  front  of  a  little  adobe  hut,  where  sat,  in 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.   269 

the  doorway,  an  aged  Mexican  and  a  child  on 
either  side  of  him.  A  large  book  lay  open  on  his 
lap  and  a  small  one  in  his  hand.  To  the  children 
he  was  teaching  what  proved  to  be  one  of  our  Gos 
pel  hymns,  and,  upon  inquiring,  we  were  told  that 
the  large  book  was  a  copy  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
which  had  been  left  by  "  a  man  who  came  with  the 
American  army  in  1847."  Learning  we  were  friends, 
the  poor  Indian  received  us  with  joy,  and  seemed  as 
much  delighted  as  ourselves  as  we  were  shown  the 
little  adobe  chapel  where  between  thirty  and  forty 
people  gathered  every  Sunday  to  read  and  study 
the  Word,  and  that  without  fear. 

The  lecturer  has  in  his  possession  the  very  copy 
of  the  Bible  which  was  instrumental  in  the  conver 
sion  of  the  first  Mexican  who  ever  became  a  Meth 
odist  preacher.  The  preacher  over  ten  years  ago 
went  to  his  well-earned  reward,  but  the  book  is  still 
guarded  as  a  treasure  of  unusual  value. 

Five  years  after  the  American  war  Santa  Ana 
was  recalled  and  appointed  president  u  for  one 
year."  But  this  sufficed  for  him  to  get  fast  hold 
on  the  reins  of  government  and  to  announce  him 
self,  as,  he  did  December  16,  1853,  Permanent  Dic 
tator,  with  the  modest  title  of  "  His  Serene  High 
ness."  He  recalled  the  Jesuits,  who  had  been 
expelled  during  colonial  times.  The  following  July 


270  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

he  sent  Jose  Gutierrez  de  Estrada  to  Europe,  with 
powers  "  to  negotiate  in  Europe  for  the  establishment 
of  a  monarchy  in  Mexico."  It  would  have  been  dif 
ficult  in  any  country  to  have  found  a  better  tool  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  But  Santa  Ana  was  again 
deposed,  and  he  fled  the  country  in  1855.  With 
him  fell  the  unscrupulous  Church  party,  and  Es 
trada's  scheme  was  checked  for  the  time.  General 
Alvarez,  a  true  patriot,  came  to  power,  and  selected 
for  his  secretary  of  justice,  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and 
public  instruction  an  Indian  from  the  State  of 
Oaxaca,  Benito  Juarez. 

The  first  thing  which  General  Alvarez  and  Mr. 
Juarez  (the  cultured  and  noble  little  Indian),  aided 
by  General  Ignacio  Comonfort,  set  about  to  accom 
plish  was  the  framing  of  such  a  Constitution  as  would 
abolish  the  Concordat  and  establish  religious  freedom 
as  the  true  foundation  stone  of  a  free  and  self-assert 
ing  nation.  The  result  was  that  on  the  5th  of  Feb 
ruary,  1857,  there  was  published,  "  in  the  name  of 
God,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  Mexican  people," 
what  Mr.  Seward  regarded  as  "  the  best  instrument 
of  its  kind  in  the  world,"  the  Mexican  Constitution, 
for  the  ample  provisions  of  which  many  a  faithful 
missionary  in  Mexico  to-day  lifts  his  heart  to  heaven 
in  sincere  gratitude. 

The  full  text,  well  translated,  may  be  seen  in  Dr. 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.   271 

Abbott's  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  but  a  synop 
sis  of  it  is  as  follows  : 

1.  The  establishment  of  the  constitutional  federal 
government  in  the  place  of  a  military  dictatorship. 

2.  Freedom  and  protection  to  slaves  entering  the 
national  territory. 

3.  Freedom  of  religion. 

4.  Freedom  of  the  press. 

5.  The    nationalization    of  the    $200,000,000   of 
property  held  by  the  clergy,  from  which,  and  other 
sources,   the  Church  derived  an   annual  income  of 
not  less  than  $20,000,000. 

6.  The  subordination    of  the   army   to    the   civil 
power  and  the  abolition  of  military  and  ecclesiasti 
cal /Z^TW,  or  special  tribunals. 

7.  The  negotiation  of  commercial  treaties  of  the 
fullest  scope  and   most  liberal  character,  including 
reciprocity  of  trade  on  our  frontiers. 

8.  The  colonization  of  Mexico  by  the  full  opening 
of  every  part  of  the  country  to  immigration  and  the 
encouragement  of  foreign  enterprise  in  every  branch 
of  industry,  particularly  in  mining  and  in  works  of 
internal  improvement.* 

The  immense  wealth  of  the  Church,  aided  by  the 
ambassadors  of  France,  Spain,  and  Guatemala,  un 
der  the  guidance  of  Clementi,  nuncio  of  the  pope, 

*  Mexico  in  Transition,  p.  121. 


272  SKETCHES  or  MEXICO. 

effected  the  overthrow  of  Comonfort,  and  later  on 
of  Juarez.  This  resulted  in  the  sending  of  Almonte, 
intimate  friend  of  the  archbishop,  to  the  French 
court,  where  he  was  soon  to  plan,  with  Napoleon, 
the  Papal-Franco  intervention.  In  the  meantime 
Miguel  Miramon,  an  ardent  instrument  of  the  clergy  ? 
came  to  the  presidency.  Almonte  negotiated  with 
Napoleon  III  such  a  treaty  as  furnished  the  French 
emperor  just  the  weapon  he  had  long  wanted,  and 
"  he  gladly  took  its  infamous  author  under  his 
special  protection,  and  resolved  on  a  war  whose  in 
justice  will  be  recognized  as  long  as  modern  history 
is  studied  by  honest  men,  and  which  can  never  be 
forgotten  by  Mexico."  The  Liberals  captured  some 
papers  belonging  to  the  Archbishop  of  Mexico  in 
which  Almonte  was  recommended  to  "  the  prayers 
and  favors  of  the  pope." 

When  Juarez  and  his  government  were  reinstated 
in  the  national  capital  in  January,  1861,  many  of  the 
clergy  left  the  country,  accompanied  by  certain  mil 
itary  traitors,  and  went  directly  to  Paris  to  confer 
with  Almonte  and  Napoleon. 

The  papal  nuncio  was  bolder,  and  remained, 
only  to  be  expelled  from  the  country  four  days 
after  Mr.  Juarez  had  entered  the  national  palace. 
Fortunate  was  it  for  Mexico  that  God  raised  up  for 
her  salvation  such  a  man  on  the  very  eve  of  one  of 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.    273 

the  greatest  struggles  ever  known  to  a  nation  seek 
ing  freedom.  This  remarkable  and  well-beloved 
man  was  a  pure  Indian  without  a  drop  of  Spanish 
blood  in  his  veins.  He  was  born  in  1806,  in  a  little 
Indian  village  twenty  miles  from  the  city  of  Oaxaca. 
When  he  first  entered  that  city,  a  boy  of  twelve 
years,  he  was  unable  even  to  speak  the  Spanish 
language.  He  became  an  errand  boy  in  the  house 
of  a  lawyer,  and  this  kind-hearted  man,  recognizing 
the  worth  of  the  boy,  encouraged  him  to  study.  He 
did  so,  and  soon  became  a  student  in  the  seminary  of 
Oaxaca.  From  the  seminary  he  graduated  with 
honors,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834.  Eight 
years  later  he  was  elected  chief  justice  of  his  native 
State,  and  soon  after  governor  of  the  same.  During 
his  term  of  five  years  he  made  Oaxaca  about  the 
most  prosperous  State  of  Mexico.  In  1846  he  came 
to  represent  his  State  in  the  national  Congress, 
when  his  wonderful  qualifications  for  leadership 
were  recognized  by  President  Alvarez,  who  called 
him  into  the  cabinet  a  few  days  later.  So  greatly 
did  he  distinguish  himself  in  this  position  that  he 
was  soon  made  the  standard  bearer  of  the  Liberal 
party  and  came  to  be,  as  Castelar  said,  "  the  saviour 
of  the  honor  of  his  country."  The  Church  early 
learned  to  fear  him.  When  but  a  student  the  Con 
servative  party,  at  that  time  having  the  upper  hand 
19 


274  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

in  Oaxaca,  consigned  him  to  prison  for  his  advo 
cacy  of  liberal  ideas  and  reform.  In  1853  Santa 
Ana  exiled  him  for  the  same  reason ;  and  we  find 
him  living  for  two  years  in  New  Orleans,  where  he 
endured  great  hardships  on  account  of  his  poverty, 
earning  a  livelihood  part  of  the  time  u  by  twisting 
cigars,"  while  he  improved  the  opportunity  for 
closely  studying  our  country  and  its  institutions. 
The  way  opened  for  his  return  and  restoration  to 
office,  and  on  the  I2th  of  February,  1857,  the 
Church  fairly  trembled  before  "  the  little  Indian  "  as 
he  hurled  forth  the  famous  "  Reform  Laws"  with 
all  the  courage  of  a  new  Cromwell  and  all  the 
ardor  of  a  Luther.  To  these  laws  were  added  in 
September,  1873,  and  in  January,  1877,  certain 
additional  provisions.  The  synopsis  of  all  is  as 
follows : 

The  absolute  separation  of  Church  and  State. 

Congress  inhibited  from  the  passage  of  any  laws 
establishing  or  prohibiting  any  religion. 

The  free  exercise  of  religious  services.  The 
State  should  not  give  official  recognition  to  any  re 
ligious  festivals,  save  the  Sabbath,  as  a  day  of  rest. 

Religious  services  were  to  be  held  only  within  the 
place  of  worship. 

Clerical  vestments  were  forbidden  in  the  streets. 

Religious  processions  were  forbidden. 


INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION.   275 

The  use  of  church  bells  was  restricted  to  calling 
the  people  to  worship. 

Pulpit  discourses  advising  disobedience  to  the 
law,  or  injury  to  anyone,  were  strictly  forbidden. 

Worship  in  churches  should  be  public  only. 

Gifts  of  real  estate  to  religious  institutions  were 
declared  unlawful,  with  the  sole  exception  of  edi 
fices  designed  exclusively  for  the  purposes  of  the 
institution. 

The  State  would  not  recognize  monastic  orders 
nor  permit  their  establishment. 

The  association  of  Sisters  of  Charity  was  sup 
pressed  in  the  republic ;  the  Jesuits  were  expelled 
and  not  allowed  to  return. 

Marriage  was  a  civil  contract  and  to  be  duly  reg 
istered.  The  religious  services  might  be  added. 

This  Constitution  and  these  Reform  Laws  provided 
for  the  confiscation  of  all  Church  property — includ 
ing  cathedrals,  churches,  chapels,  convents,  etc., 
and  secured  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  Sisters  of 
Charity,  and  all  secret  religious  orders  from  the 
country.  But  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  continued 
to  shine  as  brightly  as  ever. 


LECTURE  VIII. 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO. 


LECTURE  VIII. 
NEW   LIFE   IN    MEXICO. 

EFORE  all  had  been  accomplished,  Almonte 
and  Napoleon  were  preparing  their  pet  plan 
to  overthrow  the  republic  and  reestablish  a  mon 
archy  and  a  State  Church.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to 
look  for  a  moment  at  this  second  character.  Napo 
leon,  when  a  youth,  attempted  to  overthrow  the 
French  monarchy.  Though  pardoned  by  Louis 
Philippe  he  violated  his  compact  and  returned 
within  two  years  to  proclaim  himself  emperor.  He 
was  imprisoned  for  life,  but  escaped  six  years  later, 
and  made  his  way  to  England.  On  the  establish 
ment  of  the  republic  he  returned  to  France,  in  1848, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Assembly.  On  account  of  his  loud  profession  of 
democratic  sentiments  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  Assembly  in  December  of  that  year,  at  which 
time  he  publicly  swore,  "  In  the  presence  of  God 
and  of  the  French  people,"  to  remain  faithful  to  the 
democratic  republic.  But  within  three  years  he  de 
liberately  violated  his  oath,  dissolved  the  National 
Assembly,  placed  the  first  military  division  in  siege, 


280  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

scattered  the  Council  of  State,  and  became  a  despot 
over  his  country. 

To  this  Victor  Hugo  adds  these  details:  "  At  the 
same  time  Paris  learned  that  fifteen  of  the  inviolable 
representatives  of  the  people  had  been  arrested  in 
their  homes  during  the  night  by  order  of  Louis  Na 
poleon.  In  the  days  following  he  seized  the  execu 
tive  power,  made  an  attempt  on  the  legislative 
power,  drove  away  the  Assembly,  expelled  the  high 
court  of  justice,  took  twenty-five  millions  from  the 
bank,  gorged  the  army  with  gold,  raked  Paris  with 
grapeshot,  and  terrorized  France;  he  proscribed 
eighty-four  of  the  representatives  of  the  people,  de 
creed  despotism  in  fifty-eight  articles  under  the  title 
of  a  constitution  ;  garroted  the  republic,  made  the 
sword  of  France  a  gag  in  the  mouth  of  liberty, 
transported  to  Africa  and  Cayenne  ten  thousand 
democrats,  exiled  fifty  thousand  republicans,  placed 
in  all'souls  grief  and  on  all  foreheads  blushes."* 
And  this  is  the  man  with  whom  the  pope  had  joined 
himself  to  work  "  wreck  and  ruin"  on  martyred 
Mexico.  They  were  cautious  enough  to  wait  an  op 
portune  hour.  They  believed  the  hour  had  come 
when  our  country  was  engaged  in  one  of  the  fierc 
est  conflicts  that  ever  rocked  this  world.  It  did  not 
take  them  long  to  concoct  a  hollow  pretext.  They 

*The  Destroyer  of  the  Second  Republic,  p.  29. 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  281 

well  knew  that  Mexico's  treasury  had  been  depleted 
by  a  succession  of  revolutions.  Certain  European 
citizens  had  loaned  money  to  Mexico,  and  if  they 
could  get  their  respective  governments  to  push  the 
claims  of  the  citizens  they  might  in  this,  Mexico's 
weakest  hour,  possibly  find  a  casus  belli. 

The  plan  worked  well.  The  tripartite  treaty  was 
signed  in  London,  October  31,  1861.  The  agents 
proceeded  to  Mexico,  escorted  by  European  gun 
boats,  and  had  their  interview  with  the  secretary 
of  state.  It  was  ascertained  that  England's  claim 
was  $69,311,657,  Spain's  claim  $9,461,986,  while  all 
the  French  claims,  including  the  famous  Jecker 
bonds,  were  $2,859,917.  So  the  nation  making  the 
greatest  ado  was  the  one  with  the  smallest  claim. 
But  when  agents  from  England  and  Spain  saw 
the  situation,  especially  the  Jesuitical  workings  of 
Napoleon's  agent,  and  received  Mexico's  honest 
promise  to  pay,  they  washed  their  hands  of  the 
whole  business  and  left  Monsignor  Saligny,  the 
French  Agent,  alone  to  push  his  small  claim — a 
ridiculous  bagatelle  for  two  nations  to  quarrel  over. 

Spain  and  England  sent  a^  handful  of  men  as  an 
escort  of  honor  to  their  respective  agents,  but  Napo 
leon,  putting  to  shame  the  chivalry  of  France,  sent 
seven  thousand  men  to  take  care  of  their  agent. 
But  he  had  a  secret  object  in  view.  Then  the  com- 


282  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

mission  found  the  climate  of  Vera  Cruz  too  hot  and 
unhealthy,  and  united  in  a  petition  to  President 
Juarez  to  be  allowed  to  move  themselves  and  their 
men  to  Orizaba,  eighty-two  miles  from  the  coast 
and  about  four  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  This 
was  granted  with  the  solemn  promise  to  retire  their 
troops  on  the  conclusion  of  their  work.  When  the 
British  and  Spanish  envoys  withdrew  they  begged 
the  Frenchman  to  do  the  same.  But  he  was  acting 
under  secret  instructions.  The  emperor,  Louis 
Napoleon,  had  now  gained  what  he  wanted,  the 
power  to  act  alone,  on  his  own  terms,  in  forcing  his 
demands,  at  the  bayonet's  point,  on  an  enemy 
whose  generosity  he  had  violated,  while  he  de 
manded  full  payment  of  fictitious  claims,  and  then 
drove  him  from  the  seat  of  authority  to  which  the 
nation  had  elected  him,  in  order  to  place  upon  it  a 
stranger  whom  he  had  already  selected  for  that  pur 
pose. 

Mr.  Juarez,  taken  by  surprise,  through  the  treach 
ery  of  Napoleon's  agent,  whom  he  had  treated  in  a 
friendly  way,  was  forced  to  retire  with  his  govern 
ment  to  San   Luis  Potosi,  later  on  to  Chihuahua, 
% 

and  finally  to  El  Paso,  from  which  place,  in  case  of 
necessity,  he  knew  he  could  easily  step  over  on 
American  soil  and  seek  protection  for  his  life. 

Before   leaving   Mexico,  however,  Congress  con- 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  283 

ferred  upon  their  trusted  president  "  facultades  ex- 
traordinarios,"  with  the  sole  condition  that  on  the 
return  of  peace  he  should  inform  the  nation  of  the 
use  he  had  made  of  such  "  unlimited  authority." 

In  the  meantime  Maximilian,  Archduke  of  Aus 
tria,  accepted  the  mythical  crown  proffered  by  Na 
poleon.  Notwithstanding  the  protests  delivered  by 
a  special  agent  sent  from  Mr.  Juarez,  advising  the 
archduke  that  the  clerical  party  was  deceiving  him, 
and  notwithstanding  the  experience  of  his  brother 
Joseph  with  the  pope  only  a  few  years  before,  he 
passed  to  Rome,  receiving  the  blessing  of  Pius  IX, 
and  set  sail  for  Mexico.  The  archbishop's  agent  in 
Europe  assured  him  that  his  path  would  be  "  strewn 
with  flowers  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  throne  in  the 
halls  of  Moctezuma,  that  all  opposition  would  drop 
into  dust  within  a  few  weeks  of  his  arrival,"  and 
that  "  the  united  nation  would  gather  around  him 
with  enthusiasm  as  their  beloved  sovereign." 

Subsequent  events  proved  again  to  the  world 
how  completely  Rome  distorts  the  truth  when  it 
suits  her  plans.  After  all  that  happened  it  is  not 
surprising  that  John  Lothrop  Motley,  then  Ameri 
can  ambassador  in  Austria,  wrote  to  his  friend 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  saying: 

"  There  is  no  glory  in  the  grass  nor  verdure  in 
anything.  In  fact,  we  have  nothing  green  here  but 


284  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  Archduke  Maximilian,  who  firmly  believes  that 
he  is  going  forth  to  Mexico  to  establish  an  Ameri 
can  empire,  and  that  it  is  his  divine  mission  to  de 
stroy  the  dragon  of  democracy  and  reestablish  the 
true  Church,  the  right  divine,  and  all  sorts  of  games. 
Poor  young  man  !  "  * 

The  French  troops,  largely  augmented,  now  rolled 
back  the  republican  forces,  the  constitutional  presi 
dent  had  to  retire,  and  Maximilian  was  installed  by 
foreign  bayonets.  With  the  help  of  the  archbishop, 
Labastida,  the  enthronement  of  Maximilian  and 
Carlotta  in  the  cathedral  of  the  city  of  Mexico  as 
emperor  and  empress  was  an  eloquent  display  of 
pomp.  The  young  emperor  prepared  to  set  up 
a  gorgeous  court  on  American  soil.  His  estimate 
of  annual  expenses,  including  a  modest  salary  of  one 
and  a  half  million  for  himself,  five  million  for  the 
clergy,  and  eight  million  for  civil  list  and  secret 
service,  ran  up  to  $36,681,000!  With  this  financial 
scheme  and  the  blessing  of  the  pope  he  was  to  un 
dertake  the  task  of  building  up  "  a  model  Romish 
State  on  this  continent "  which  was  to  be  the  enter 
ing  wedge  for  general  work  of  the  same  sort 
throughout  the  entire  continent.  In  the  light  of 
these  facts  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  Louis  Na 
poleon  and  Pius  IX  contemplated  a  final  subjuga- 

*  Correspondence  of  J.  L.  Motley,  vol.  ii,  p.  138. 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  285 

tion  of  this  entire  American  hemisphere,  north  and 
south,  to  the  papal  see.  This  secret  comes  clearly 
out  in  a  publication  from  the  pen  of  Abbe  Dome- 
nech,  Maximilian's  official  press  director,  who  in  his 
book,  Mexico  As  It  fs,  declares  that  the  Monroe 
doctrine  must  be  overthrown  and  the  Latin  race 
given  a  career  on  this  continent.  Then  he  adds, 
"  If  monarchy  should  be  successfully  introduced 
into  Spanish  republics  in  ten  years  the  United 
States  would  themselves  declare  a  dictatorship, 
which  is  a  kind  of  republican  monarchy  adopted  by 
degenerate  or  too  revolutionary  republics."  * 

We  beg  to  refer  you  again  to  Mexico  in  Transition 
for  perhaps  the  most  full  and  correct  account  of  the 
so-called  French  intervention  found  in  the  English 
language.  Especially  complete  is  it  as  to  its  rela 
tion  to  the  pope  on  one  hand,  and  to  the  possibili 
ties  of  establishing  evangelical  missions  in  Mexico 
on  the  other.  But  we  hasten  with  our  story. 

The  Confederacy,  under  Jefferson  Davis,  sought 
recognition  from  Maximilian,  and  in  order  to  obtain 
it  his  forces  along  the  Texas  border  acted  as  allies 
to  the  emperor  by  intercepting  bearers  of  dispatches 
between  President  Juarez  and  his  minister  at  Wash 
ington.  When  at  last  Lee  surrendered  and  the 
Confederacy  collapsed  intercourse  was  opened  and 

*  Quoted  from  Mexico  in  Transition,  p.  1 73. 


286  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

made  secure  between  Washington  and  the  Mexican 
frontier.  One  of  the  first  things  done  by  our  noble 
Lincoln  was  to  send  a  letter  full  of  sympathy  and 
inspiration  to  Benito  Juarez,  who  was  viewing  his 
land  in  the  hand  of  invaders,  the  institutions  so 
dearly  loved  "  trampled  under  the  feet  of  men," 
while  he  anxiously  awaited  a  turn  of  events  in  the 
little  town  of  El  Paso  del  Norte.  In  this  note 
Lincoln  in  substance  said,  "  Be  of  good  cheer,  dear 
friend,  Mexico  will  rise  again." 

On  December  16,  1865,  Mr.  Seward  sent  through 
our  ambassador  at  Paris  a  rather  brief  but  effective 
note  to  the  French  court.  In  polite  but  pointed 
language  Mr.  Seward  makes  two  statements,  and 
then  concludes :  "  Having  thus  frankly  stated  our 
position,  I  leave  the  question  for  the  consideration 
of  France,  sincerely  hoping  that  that  great  nation 
may  find  it  compatible  with  its  best  interests  and 
high  honor  to  withdraw  from  its  aggressive  attitude 
in  Mexico  within  some  Convenient  and  reasonable 
time,  and  thus  leave  the  people  of  that  country  to 
the  free  enjoyment  of  the  system  of  republican 
government  they  have  established  for  themselves, 
and  of  their  adhesion  to  which  they  have  given 
what  seems  to  the  United  States  to  be  decisive  and 
conclusive  as  well  as  touching  proof."* 

*  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  United  States,  1865,  p.  451. 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  287 

No  more  effective  "  shot  "  was  ever  fired  from 
Washington  than  that  note.  The  Monroe  doctrine 
was  not  a  dead  letter.  Napoleon  realized  it,  and  his 
troops  were  withdrawn.  The  Empress  Carlotta  flew 
to  Europe.  Disappointed  and  enraged  to  the  verge 
of  madness  by  her  cool  reception  from  Napoleon, 
she  hastened  to  Rome  in  the  vain  hope  that  the 
pope  could  supply  men  and  means  to  sustain  her 
husband  and  the  empire  in  Mexico.  What  hap 
pened  during  that  mysterious  interview  "  of  one 
hour  and  eighteen  minutes  "  perhaps  the  world  may 
never  know,  but  poor  Carlotta  left  the  Vatican  a 
raving  maniac,  and,  though  somewhat  calmer,  she 
has  never  yet  regained  her  reason.  Nor  does  she 
know  to  this  day  the  sad  fate  of  Maximilian,  as  she 
rambles  in  her  lonely  garden  at  the  Castle  of  Mir- 
amar. 

When  at  last  Maximilian  realized  the  loss  of  the 
French  troops,  and  that  Napoleon  and  Pius  IX 
feared  to  furnish  further  aid,  he  reached  the  con 
clusion  that  the  empire  was  a  failure.  He  desired 
himself  then  to  leave  the  country. 

He  quietly  moved  to  Orizaba,  under  pretext  of  a 
change  of  climate,  but  with  the  purpose  of  improv 
ing  the  first  opportunity  of  returning  to  Europe. 
The  question  of  abdication,  insisted  upon  by 
Marshal  Bazaine,  delayed  him  long  -enough  to 


288  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

allow  the  Clericals  to  arrange  another  desperate 
blow  at  republican  institutions.  Two  well-known 
generals,  Marquez  and  Miramon,  champions  of  the 
Church  party,  were  to  raise  a  native  army  (against 
which  the  United  States  could  not  protest)  to  prop 
up  the  empire.  In  a  mysterious  way  money  be 
came  suddenly  plentiful.  The  Church  furnished  it. 
Maximilian  returned  to  the  city  of  Mexico  rather 
against  his  will,  now  only  a  passive  tool  and  little 
better  than  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  Clerical 
party. 

The  United  States  government  had  firmly  in 
sisted  that  no  French  troops  should  remain  beyond 
March  II,  1867,  and  General  Sheridan  had  reached 
the  Rio  Grande  with  American  troops  to  aid  Mr. 
Juarez  in  case  of  necessity.  Maximilian  realized  his 
great  mistake  in  returning.  The  funds  were  soon 
exhausted  ;  the  native  army  ready  to  support  the 
empire  was  not  forthcoming,  so  the  emperor,  the 
archbishop,  and  the  traitor  generals  found  them 
selves  with  but  two  cities  in  their  hands,  Mexico  and 
Queretaro.  From  the  first  Maximilian  was  soon 
driven  and  took  refuge  in  the  second,  possibly  with 
the  hope  of  ultimately  reaching  American  soil,  where 
his  life,  at  least,  might  be  spared. 

Queretaro  was  soon  captured  by  General  Esco- 
bedo,  and  Maximilian,  the  tool  of  Napoleon,  the 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  289 

puppet  of  Pius  IX,  was  a  prisoner.  He  was  fairly 
tried  and  condemned  to  be  shot.  Some  have  thought 
the  penalty  extreme,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  he  was  a  foreign  invader  and  the  usurper  of 
the  rights  of  a  sovereign  people;  that  by  force  of  arms 
he  had  disposed  of  the  rights  and  lives  of  thou 
sands  of  Mexicans ;  that  he  had,  by  decree  (Octo 
ber  3,  1865),  falsely  declared  the  republican  army 
a  band  of  robbers  whose  president  and  government 
had  abandoned  the  national  territory,  and  that  he 
continued  "  to  employ  means  of  violence,  death, 
and  destruction  until  he  fell." 

Besides  all  this  there  was  no  heir,  and  here  was 
the  empire  in  a  nutshell.  "  Allow  him  to  go  now," 
Mr.  Juarez  said,  "  and  there  was  no  knowing 
what  the  pope  and  some  European  power  might 
contrive  in  future.  No  ;  the  lesson  has  been  a  dear 
one  for  us,  and  we  must  now  teach  a  corresponding 
one  to  Pius  IX,  Napoleon,  and  all  the  world." 

Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  secretary  of  state 
under  Juarez,  closed  his  reply  to  the  lawyers  of 
Maximilian,  when  the  appeal  for  pardon  was  reiter 
ated,  in  the  following  words : 

"  The  existence  of  Mexico  as  an  independent 
nation  must  not  be  left  to  the  will  of  the  govern 
ments  of  Europe.  Our  reforms,  our  progress,  our 
liberty  must  not  stop  at  the  wish  of  any  foreign 
20 


2QQ  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

sovereign  who  might  take  a  notion  to  impose  an 
emperor  upon  us  who  would  attempt  again  to  reg 
ulate  the  amount  of  liberty  or  servitude  he  thought 
best  to  bestow  upon  us.  The  life  of  Maximilian 
might  be  the  excuse  for  an  attempt  at  a  viceroyalty. 
The  return  of  Maximilian  to  Europe  might  be  a 
weapon  for  the  calumniators  and  enemies  of  Mexico 
to  bring  about  a  restoration  and  the  overthrow  of 
the  institutions  of  the  country.  For  nearly  fifty 
years  Mexico  has  pursued  a  policy  of  pardon  and 
leniency,  and  the  fruits  of  that  policy  have  been 
anarchy  among  ourselves  and  loss  of  prestige 
abroad.  Now,  or  never,  may  the  republic  con 
solidate  itself." 

Every  appeal  to  spare  his  life,  including  that  of 
the  Emperor  of  Austria,  that  of  the  Queen  of  Eng 
land,  and  the  impassionate  and  repeated  pleas  by 
the  Princess  Salm-Salm,  as  well  as  the  carefully 
drawn  request  of  our  Mr.  Seward,  were  all  in  vain. 
Every  attempt  to  bribe  the  officers,  one  of  them 
accompanied  by  no  less  a  price  than  $200,000, 
failed.  An  aggrieved  and  wronged  nation,  weeping 
by  thousands  for  those  who  had  suffered  and  died 
through  him,  demanded  justice.  So  after  a  fair 
trial,  in  which  the  best  judicial  talent  in  the  country, 
and  of  his  own  selection,  vainly  defended  him,  the 
Archduke  Maximilian,  of  Austria,  was  executed  on 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  291 

the  little  "  Hill  of  the    Bells  "  just   outside  the  city 
of  Queretaro. 

When  Mr.  Juarez,  the  legal  President  of  Mexico 
and  leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  returned  from  his 
exile  and  was  again  in  possession  of  the  office  to 
which  he  had  been  elevated  by  his  people,  he 
turned  his  attention  to  the  party  which  brought  so 
much  sorrow  and  destruction  to  the  nation.  The 
great  Church  property  had  already  been  national 
ized.  Its  value  was  estimated,  as  already  stated, 
at  from  $200,000,000  to  $300,000,000.  From  this 
and  other  sources  the  Church  had  derived  an  annual 
income  of  $20,000,000.  The  Liberals  took  the  ground 
that  this  immense  property  had  been  unjustly 
wrung  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people,  and  there 
fore  should  be  returned  to  its  lawful  owners.  As 
many  churches  were  designated  for  public  worship 
as  were  needed  for  that  purpose.  But  these  were 
only  leased  to  the  Church  party  for  a  term  of  ninety- 
nine  years.  The  title  is  still  vested  in  the  govern 
ment,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  it  has  been 
necessary  to  remind  the  clergy  who  is  the  owner  of 
these  properties.  The  occasion  of  this  kind  causing 
most  astonishment  occurred  when  Sefior  Jose  Baz, 
governor  of  the  Federal  District,  learning  that  the 
bishop  was  preaching  against  the  Liberals  and  the 
reform  laws,  rode  on  horseback  at  the  head  of  a 


292  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

body  of  men  into  the  Cathedral,  arrested  the  bishop, 
turned  the  people  into  the  street,  locked  the  door, 
and  carried  the  key  to  his  own  office.  This  episode 
brought  about  a  clear  understanding  between  the 
interested  parties  before  the  key  was  given  up. 
Henceforth  treason  must  not  be  preached  in  Mexi 
can  churches. 

Much  of  the  property — convents,  monasteries, 
houses  of  religious  orders,  and  the  Inquisition — was 
sold  to  help  the  national  treasury.  Many  edifices 
were  given  to  army  officers  in  payment  of  long 
years  of  service.  It  can  be  easily  imagined  that 
this  policy  created  a  large  army  of  opponents  to 
the  Church  as  a  political  institution. 

The  Liberal  party  was  given  hearty  cooperation 
from  the  masses  of  the  people,  and  rightly  so. 
The  lessons  of  the  Inquisition,  the  demands  upon 
their  hard-earned  and  limited  living  through  the 
confessional  and  the  seven  so-called  sacraments,  had 
laid  burdens  upon  them  "  grievous  to  be  borne." 
True,  the  Inquisition  was  broken  up,  but  the  re 
mains  of  it  were  seen  in  places  of  religious  retreat, 
while  many  of  the  milder  instruments  of  torture 
were  used  not  only  in  these  retreats,  but  imposed 
upon  the  people  in  the  churches  and  in  their  own 
homes. 

Madame  Calderon  de  la  Barca,  wife  of  the  first 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  293 

Spanish  ambassador  to  Mexico — Spain  having  con 
sented  to  recognize  the  independence  of  her  lost 
province — during  her  stay  in  the  country  wrote  a 
series  of  letters  which  were  afterward  edited  and 
published  by  Prescott,  the  historian.  She  was  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  describes  the  use  of  these 
instruments  as  she  saw  it  in  the  Church  of  Santo 
Domingo.  She  says: 

"  The  scene  was  curious.  About  one  hundred 
and  fifty  men,  enveloped  in  cloaks  and  scrapes, 
their  faces  entirely  concealed,  were  assembled  in 
the  body  of  the  church.  A  monk  had  just  mounted 
the  pulpit,  and  the  church  was  dimly  lighted,  except 
where  he  stood  in  bold  relief,  with  his  gray  robes 
and  cowl  thrown  back,  giving  a  full  view  of  his  high, 
bald  forehead  and  expressive  face.  His  discourse 
was  a  rude  but  very  forcible  and  eloquent  descrip 
tion  of  the  torments  prepared  in  hell  for  impeni 
tent  sinners.  The  effect  of  the  whole  was  very  sol 
emn.  It  appeared  like  the  preparation  for  the  execu 
tion  of  a  multitude  of  condemned  criminals.  When 
the  discourse  was  finished  they  all  joined  in  prayer 
with  much  fervor  and  enthusiasm,  beating  their 
breasts  and  falling  upon  their  faces.  Then  the 
monk  stood  up  and  in  a  very  distinct  voice  read 
several  passages  of  Scripture  descriptive  of  the  suf 
ferings  of  Christ.  The  organ  then  struck  up  the 


294  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

'  Miserere/  and  all  of  a  sudden  the  church  was 
plunged  in  profound  darkness — all  but  a  sculptured 
representation  of  the  crucifixion,  which  seemed  to 
hang  in  the  air  illuminated.  I  felt  rather  fright 
ened,  and  would  have  been  very  glad  to  leave  the 
church,  but  it  would  have  been  impossible  in.  the 
darkness.  Suddenly  a  terrible  voice  in  the  dark 
cried,  *  My  brothers,  when  Christ  was  fastened  to 
the  pillar  by  the  Jews  he  was  scourged.'  At  these 
words  the  bright  figure  disappeared  and  the  dark 
ness  became  total.  Suddenly  we  heard  the  sound 
of  hundreds  of  scourges  descending  upon  the. -bare 
flesh.  I  cannot  conceive  anything  more  horrible. 
Before  ten  minutes  had  passed  the  sound  ; became 
splashing,  from  the  blood  that  was  flowing.  We 
could  not  leave  the  church,  but  it  was  perfectly 
sickening;  and  had  I  not  been  able  to  take  hold  of 
the  seftora's  hand  and  feel  something  human  be 
side  me  I  could  have  fancied  myself  transported 
into  a  congregation  of  evil  spirits.  Now  and  then, 
but  very  seldom,  a  suppressed  groan  was  heard,,  and 
occasionally  the  voice  of  the  monk  encouraging 
them  by  ejaculations  or  by  short  passages  from 
Scripture.  Sometimes  the  organ  struck,  up,  and 
the  poor  wretches,  in  a  faint  voice,  tried  to:  join  in 
the  'Miserere.'  The  sound  of  the  scourging  is  .in 
describable.  At  the  end  of  half  an  hour  a. little 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  295 

bell  was  rung,  and  the  voice  of  the  monk  was  heard 
calling  upon  them  to  desist ;  but  such  was  their  en 
thusiasm  that  the  horrible  lashing  continued  louder 
and  fiercer  than  ever.  In  vain  he  entreated  them 
not  to  kill  themselves,  and  assured  them  that  Heaven 
would  be  satisfied,  and  that  human  nature  could 
not  endure  beyond  a  certain  point.  No  answer, 
but  the  loud  sound  of  the  scourges,  which  are  many 
of  them  of  iron,  with  sharp  points  that  enter  the 
flesh.  At  length,  as  if  they  were  perfectly  ex 
hausted,  the  sound  grew  fainter,  and  little  by  little 
ceased  altogether.  We  then  got  up,  and,  with  great 
difficulty,  groped  our  way  in  the  pitch  darkness  till 
we  reached  the  door.  They  say  that  the  church 
floor  was  frequently  covered  with  blood  after  one 
of  these  penances,  and  that  a  man  died  the  other 
day  in  consequence  of  his  wounds." 

These  disciplinas,  silicias,  circlets,  or  crowns,  and 
waistbands  are  in  a  quiet  way  still  imposed  upon 
the  blind  dupes  of  the  priests.*  The  administra 
tion  of  the  seven  sacraments  was  a  source 
of  great  revenue  to  the  Church,  and  a  means  by 
which  thousands  were  kept  in  poverty.  None  of 
these,  unless  it  was  in  the  case  of  "  holy  orders  " 

*  Specimens  of  these  different  articles  of  self-punishment  were  ex 
hibited  by  the  lecturer,  who  had  obtained  some  of  them  from  con 
verts  who  aforetime  used  them. 


296  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

(and  of  these  we  are  in  doubt),  were  ever  adminis 
tered  without  the  payment  of  an  extravagant  fee  to 
the  priest.  The  poorest  of  the  poor  were  obliged 
to  pay  for  baptism,  confirmation,  the  eucharist, 
penance,  matrimony,  or  extreme  unction  a  sum 
equivalent  to  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars  of  our 
money.  The  multitudes  of  peons  working  on  the 
great  estates  were  the  principal  sufferers  from  this 
oppressive  simony.  These  estates  were  visited  peri 
odically  by  the  priests,  and  the  sacraments  were  ad 
ministered  by  wholesale.  At  the  end  of  his  day's 
work  the  priest  would  present  his  bill  to  the  admin 
istrator  and  receive  his  pay  in  bulk.  The  adminis 
trator,  in  turn,  charged  up  to  the  individual  laborer 
his  part  or  parts — for  the  same  family  may  have 
asked  for  two  or  three  sacraments.  Now,  this  poor 
man  probably  earned  a  sum  equivalent  to  thirty 
cents  of  our  money,  and,  counting  out  the  Sabbath 
and  other  feast  days,  of  which  there  were  many, 
worked  about  two  hundred  days  or  less  in  the  year. 
At  best  this  would  give  him  sixty  dollars  per  year. 
From  this  he  must  clothe  and  feed  his  family,  buy 
ing  his  provisions  at  a  store  owned  by  his  employer 
(where  prices  were  certainly  not  lower  than  else 
where),  meet  a  small  tax,  perhaps,  for  doctor  and 
medicines,  and  pay  besides  the  exorbitant  exactions 
of  the  mercenary  priesthood.  The  exception  was  to 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  297 

find  a  man  out  of  debt,  and  consequently  out  of 
slavery,  for  there  existed  a  law  prohibiting  the  la 
borer  to  leave  his  employer  while  indebted  to  him  ; 
so  unless  a  new  master  came  forward  he  was  likely 
to  be  in  debt  until  freed  by  death  itself.  Thus  it 
often  happened  that  grim  death,  with  all  his  terrors 
for  the  superstitious  mind,  was  a  better  friend  to 
man  than  was  his  fellow. 

Among  the  higher  class  of  people  the  confessional 
and  "  last  sacrament "  were  the  chief  sources  of 
bonanza.  Sins  might  be  atoned  for  and  the  poor 
sinner's  peace  made  with  the  Church  by  the  pay 
ment  of  silver  and  gold.  And  when  the  "  faithful," 
taught  from  infancy  that  without  extreme  unction 
he  could  not  possibly  enter  heaven,  came  down  to 
death's  door  the  father  confessor  was  at  his  side. 
In  one  hand  the  "sacrament"  was  held  and  often 
with  the  other  this  so-called  man  of  God  would 
shake  over  the  trembling  soul  the  pains  of  purga 
tory  and  the  terrors  of  hell  till  a  good  portion  of  his 
worldly  goods  was  made  over  to  the  Church — cus 
todian  of  heaven's  key!  These  expressions  are 
fully  justified  by  the  testimony  of  a  Roman  Catho 
lic  author,  Abbe  Domenech,  the  chief  chaplain  of 
the  French  army,  who,  in  his  Mexico  As  It  Is,  de 
clares  concerning  the  priests,  that  "  they  make  mer 
chandise  of  the  sacrament,  and  make  money  by 


298  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

every  religious  ceremony."  Then  he  adds:  "  One 
of  the  greatest  evils  in  Mexico  is  the  exorbitant  fee 
for  the  marriage  ceremony.  The  priests  compel  the 
poor  to  live  without  marriage  by  demanding  for  the 
nuptial  benediction  more  than  a  Mexican  mechanic, 
with  his  slender  wages,  can  accumulate  in  fifty  years 
of  strictest  economy.  This  is  no  exaggeration." 

Thus  writes  a  faithful  son  of  the  Church.  But 
the  Liberal  party,  under  Comonfort  and  Juarez, 
sought  to  remedy  these  excesses  and  set  their  peo 
ple  free  as  far  as  within  their  power.  Hence,  on 
being  reinstated  in  the  national  capital,  the  laws  of 
reform  (already  quoted  in  substance)  were  enlarged 
and  reenacted  in  order  to  carry  out  the  provisions 
and  purposes  of  the  Constitution.  Under  the  pro 
tection  of  both  Protestant  missionaries  were  enabled 
to  enter  Mexico.  Mr.  Juarez,  on  more  than  one 
occasion,  manifested,  publicly  and  privately,  his 
obligations  to  God  and  the  desire  that  the  repre 
sentatives  of  a  pure  form  of  Christianity  should 
obtain  among  the  millions  of  his  priest-ridden  coun 
trymen.  At  the  close  of  the  French  intervention 
he  issued  the  following  proclamation  : 
".:-.•"  Let  the  Mexican  people  fall  on  their  knees  be 
fore  God,  .who  .has  deigned  to  crown  our  arms  with 
victory.  He  has  smitten  the  foreigner  who  has  op 
pressed  us  sorely.  He  has  established  these,  his 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  299 

people,  in  their  rightful  place.  For  he  who  hath 
his  habitation  in  the  heavens  is  the  visitor  and  pro 
tector  of  our  country,  who  strikes  down  those  who 
came  to  do  us  ill.  The  excellent,  the  only  just,  al 
mighty,  and  eternal  One  is  he  who  hath  dispersed 
the  nations  which,  like  vultures,  had  fallen  on 
Mexico." 

One  of  our  native  preachers,  an  ex-priest,  enjoyed 
the  personal  friendship  of  Mr.  Juarez  up  to  the  time 
of  his  death,  and  to  him  the  lamented  president 
once  said :  "  Upon  the  development  of  Protestant 
ism  largely  depends  the  future  of  our  country." 

No  wonder  we  find  the  authorities,  including  the 
president  and  the  State  governors,  as  a  rule,  ready 
to  give  due  protection  to  the  lives  and  properties 
of  the  missionaries.  The  first  missionary  to  enter 
the  field  was  a  brave  Christian  woman.  In  the 
early  fifties  Miss  Melinda  Rankin  went  to  reside  in 
Brownsville,  Texas.  While  studying  the  Spanish 
language  she  employed  some  Mexicans  to  act  as 
colporteurs  among  their  country  people.  Later 
she  moved  as  far  south  as  Monterey,  where  she  es 
tablished  a  day  and  boarding  school.  In  this  she 
seems  to  have  had  a  biblical  department  (the  first 
theological  seminary  under  evangelical  auspices  in 
the  republic  of  Mexico),  for  the  youth  were  taught 
not  only  the  rudiments,  of  a  common  education,  but 


3oo  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

received  daily  instruction  in  the  truths  of  the  Gos 
pel.  After  a  while  some  of  the  older  boys  were 
sent  every  Sabbath  into  the  towns  and  villages 
about  Monterey  to  read  and  explain  the  chapter  of 
God's  word  which  they  had  been  studying  during 
the  week.  In  time  it  was  found  that  fourteen  little 
congregations  had  grown  up  through  her  instru 
mentality,  and  our  theological  professoress  had  thus 
providentially  come  to  be  the  pastor  and  bishop  of 
hundreds  of  souls,  while  her  infant  flock  looked  up 
to  her  with  just  as  much  regard  and  reverence,  per 
haps,  as  if  some  bishop  or  council  had  laid  "  holy 
hands  "  on  her  head.  When  her  health  failed  her 
work  was  handed  over  to  the  Presbyterians.  Later 
some  of  the  workers  came  as  far  south  as  Villa  de 
Cos,  in  the  State  of  Zacatecas,  where  they  were 
greatly  encouraged  by  Dr.  Prevost,  a  Christian  phy 
sician  living  in  the  capital  of  that  State.  He  was 
an  American,  and  in  his  long  residence  in  Mexico 
he  has  been  a  most  valued  adviser  and  helper  in 
the  Presbyterian  Mission. 

Several  of  the  evangelical  Churches  in  the  United 
States  decided  to  enter  the  field  toward  the  close 
of  1872.  They  did  so  in  about  the  following  order: 
the  Presbyterian,  Methodist  Episcopal,  Congrega 
tional,  Baptist  (Southern  Convention),  Southern 
Methodist,  Southern  Presbyterian,  Reformed  As- 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO. 


301 


sociate  Presbyterian,  Baptist  (Northern  Conven 
tion),  the  Friends,  and  the  Cumberland  Presby 
terian.  Besides  these  there  were  several  independ- 
ent  missions,  such  as  the  Church  of  Jesus,  part  of 
which,  about  ten  years  ago,  was  formally  taken  up 
by  the  Episcopalians  ;  an  English  mission  originated 
by  the  late  James  Pascoe,  but  since  his  death  dis 
membered  ;  and  finally  the  work  of  a  Mr.  Harris, 
in  Orizaba.  Of  these  smaller  independent  missions 
it  has  been  impossible  to  secure  reliable  statistics ; 
but  after  months  of  persistent  correspondence  we 
are  able  to  present  the  following  surprising  results 
in  our  sister  republic  of  a  little  over  twenty  years  : 

TWENTY    YEARS    OK    SYSTEMATIC    EVANGELICAL    WORK.* 


I    The  Field 

Total  of  all 
Missions. 

Methodist 
Episcopal 
Missions. 

8? 

qo 

Number  of  congregations  

600 

T1  "I 

II.    The  Workers. 
Number  of  ordained  foreign  missionaries.  .  .  . 
Number   of    assistant     foreign    missionaries 
(that  is,  unordained  men,  and  wives   of 
ordained  and  assistant  missionaries).  .  .  . 
Number  of  foreign  lady  teachers  

59 

59 
67 

10 

10 

8 

Whole  number  of  foreign  workers  
Number  of  native  preachers    ordained 

185 
in 

28 
I  e 

Number  of  native  preachers,  unordained.  .  .  . 
Number  of  native  teachers 

164 

177 

33 

18 

Number  of  other  native  helpers                        . 

Q4 

«;6 

Total  number  of  native  workers   

546 

142 

Grand  total  of  foreign  and  native  workers.  .  . 

731 

160 

*  During  these  years  the  British  and  American  Bible  societies  have  distributed 
416,819  volumes  of  sacred  writ  in  Mexico. 


302 


SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 


///.    The  Churches. 

Total  of  all 
Missions. 

Methodiit 
Episcopal 
Missions. 

441 

16,034 
49,512 

9 
86 

33 
625 
116 
6,709 
7,336 
347 

694 
9,8i3 
10,507 

10 
13 

159,948,246 

118 

635,550 

$30 

217,900 
31 

283,885 
40,150 
1,101,485 

58 

133 
3,085 
8,214 

I 

7 
3 
56 
48 
3,19° 
3,253 
59 

157 
i,797 
i,944 

i 

i 

40,048,246 

28 

104,700 

18 

128,200 

8 

117,200 

12,850 
362,950 

4 

Number  of  probable  adherents                     .  .  . 

IV.    The  Schools. 
Number  of  training  and  theological  schools. 
Number  of  students  in  same   .        .... 

Number  of  boarding  schools  or  orphanages. 

Number  of  common  schools     

Number  of  pupils  in  same     

Total  number  under  instruction  

Number  of  Sunday  school  teachers  and  offi 
cers                         ...                 

Number  of  Sunday  school  scholars  

Total  membership  of  Sunday  schools  

V.  Publishing  Interests. 
Number  of  publishing  houses  

Number  of  papers  issued                          . 

Pages  of  all  kinds  of  religious  literature  is 
sued  since   the    establishment    of   your 
press                

VI.  Properties. 
Number  of  church  buildings        . 

Approximate  value  of  same  (including  furni- 

Number  of  parsonages 

Approximate  value  of  same  (including  society 
furniture)   

Number  of  educational  buildings  

Approximate  value  of  same  (including  furni 
ture  and  utensils)..  ."  

Value  of  publishing  outfit  

Total  value  of  all  missionary  property  

VII.  Historic  and  Personal. 
Number  of  martyrs  from  the  first                 .  .  . 

NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  303 

These  609  congregations,  16,000  communicants, 
and  nearly  50,000  adherents,  with  6,709  children  in 
our  day  schools  and  9,813  in  our  Sunday  schools,  are 
the  work  of  only  about  twenty  years.  And  all  this 
has  been  accomplished  in  a  land  where  a  few  years 
ago  there  was  no  open  Bible,  no  Protestant  school, 
and  no  evangelical  Church.  "  This  is  the  Lord's 
doings,  and  it  is  marvelous  in  our  eyes." 

In  the  early  forties  Madame  Calderon  de  la  Barca, 
a  devout  Roman  Catholic  as  already  said,  writing 
of  the  disturbed  and  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the 
country  and  the  people,  and  writing,  too,  when  there 
was  not  a  declared  Protestant  in  all  the  land,  said, 
"  Let  them  (the  clergy)  beware  lest  half  a  century 
later  they  be  awakened  from  their  delusion  and 
find  the  Cathedral  turned  into  a  meeting  house  and 
all  painted  white,  the  railing  melted  down,  the 
Virgin's  jewels  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  the  floor 
washed  (which  would  do  it  no  harm),  and  around  the 
whole  a  new  wooden  paling,  freshly  done  in  green, 
and  all  this  performed  by  some  of  the  artists  from 
the  wide-awake  republic  further  north."  If  the 
madame  could  rise  from  her  grave  and  return  to 
Mexico  she  would  be  surprised  to  know  what  a  real 
prophetess  she  was.  The  "  railing  "  of  solid  silver 
was  melted  during  the  War  of  Independence,  the 
government  recently  put  a  substantial  paling,  the 


304  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

floor  has  been  washed  often,  the  unaccompanied 
mass  of  other  days  is  now  often  followed  by  a 
sermon,  sometimes  even  a  gospel  sermon ;  for 
Rome  is  always  forced  to  preach  when  Protestant 
ism  is  planted  in  her  midst.  And  besides  all  this 
evangelical  Churches  are  multiplying  more  and  more 
in  every  State  of  the  republic,  and  the  Gospel  now 
having  "  free  course  "  in  this  land  of  Moctezuma, 
its  influence  will  soon  spread  into  the  central  and 
the  northern  part  of  South  America  till  we  meet  our 
brother  missionaries  of  those  regions,  and  all  Spanish 
America  will  be  lifted  up  into  the  life  and  liberty  of 
the  children  of  God. 

Our  own  branch  of  the  Christian  Church  was  one 
of  the  first  to  enter  the  field,  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  providentially  guided  in  the  selection  of  im 
portant  centers  and  the  building  up  of  suitable 
headquarters.  Our  experience  in  the  city  of  Mexico 
will  suffice  as  an  illustration  of  this  fact.  Here,  as 
our  first  superintendent  graphically  tells  us  in  his 
recent  work  on  Mexico,  we  own  a  portion  of  the 
Convent  of  San  Francisco,  and  it  stands  on  the  very 
spot  where  Moctezuma's  pleasure  palace  stood  four 
hundred  years  ago.  After  the  nationalization  of  all 
the  country's  great  Church  property  this  part  of  the 
immense  convent,  covering  what  is  equivalent  to 
four  city  blocks,  became  a  circus,  then  a  theater, 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  305 

later  it  served  as  the  national  Congress  hall,  and 
then  again  as  a  theater.  This  theater  company 
failed  just  as  our  first  superintendent  reached  the  city 
of  Mexico  in  February,  1873.  In  a  strange  and 
certainly  providential  way,  as  described  in  the  tenth 
chapter  of  his  book,  this  property,  with  its  recent 
improvements,  became  one  of  the  most  complete 
Protestant  headquarters  in  the  republic.  It  is  cen 
trally  located,  contains  church,  chapel,  boys'  school 
rooms,  press,  bookstore,  editorial  and  agent's  rooms, 
and  three  parsonages.  All  these  in  place  of  pagan 
palace  and  Romish  convent.  Mexico  has  had  many 
transitions  during  the  past  twenty-five  years,  but 
none  more  wonderful  than  that  which  we  witness 
here. 

And  this  is  especially  so  when,  in  the  very  corri 
dors  which  formerly  served  for  the  solemn  proces 
sions  and  awful  deeds  of  Spanish  friars,  you  can  now 
find  several  times  a  week  a  devout  and  happy 
Methodist  congregation  under  their  own  roof,  with 
"  none  to  molest,"  as  they  worship  God  just  as  you 
do  here  in  this  highly  favored  land.  No  wonder 
that  Bishop  FitzGerald,  sitting  in  the  chapel  pulpit 
and  looking  out  on  the  ardent  worshipers  with  per 
haps  some  of  their  same  thoughts  running  through 
his  mind,  was  carried  on  the  wings  of  song  more 
than  once  into  a  shouting  mood. 
21 


306  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

Now  let  us  examine  the  following  contrast : 
Thirty  years  ago  Pope  Pius  IX  and  the  Jesuits, 
Napoleon  and  Eugenie,  Maximilian  and  Carlotta, 
were  banded  together  for  the  establishment  of  a 
European  monarchy  in  Mexico,  which  meant  the 
complete  extermination  of  the  Liberal  party,  the 
reenthronement  of  the  Clericals,  and  the  unlimited 
sorrow  and  destruction  of  the  people  and  the  na 
tion. 

On  the  collapse  of  the  empire  in  Mexico,  Europe 
was  still  in  commotion.  The  troops  of  Louis  Na 
poleon  were  in  Rome,  but  were  soon  after  with 
drawn  under  a  secretly  arranged  treaty  between 
Napoleon  and  Victor  Emmanuel.  On  the  1 8th  of 
July,  1870,  the  pope's  claim  to  infallibility  was  de 
creed.  The  very  next  day,  as  Mr.  Gladstone  says, 
"Napoleon  III,  the  political  ally  and  supporter  of 
Pius  IX,  unchained  the  furies  of  war,  which  in  a  few 
weeks  swept  away  the  empire  of  France,  and  with 
it  the  temporal  power  of  the  infallible  pope,  while 
the  five  hundred  and  thirty-three  purblind  Catholic 
bishops  who  had  voted  for  infallibility  made  a 
hasty  and  ignominious  retreat  from  Rome. 

On  the  1st  of  September  following  France  was 
completely  crushed  at  Sedan  by  her  ancient  Ger 
manic  foe.  On  the  3ist  of  the  same  month  Victor 
Emmanuel,  who  had  recently  been  excommunicated 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  307 

by  the  pope,  entered  Rome  at  the  head  of  the  Liberal 
army,  and  in  a  few  days  was  almost  unanimously 
chosen  as  the  ruler  of  a  free  and  united  people. 
Every  ruler  in  Europe  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  im- 
passionate  appeals  of  the  pope  for  reinstatement  in 
power.  He  was  now  only  a  poor  prisoner,  his  capi 
tal  taken  from  him,  and  his  outrageous  assumptions 
had  fallen  to  the  dust,  and  to-day  a  dozen  Protes 
tant  churches  are  found  within  the  walls  of  that  cap 
ital,  one  of  which  was  located,  by  Dean  Vernon, 
conveniently  near  the  Vatican. 

Napoleon  III  had  long  sought  a  quarrel  with 
Germany,  and  at  last  it  came.  On  the  1st  of 
September,  1870,  this  "  eldest  son  of  the  Church," 
after  seeing  his  forces  completely  vanquished,  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Sedan  by  a  Protestant  king  and  car 
ried  in  exile  to  the  Castle  of  Wilhelmshohe,  "never 
to  wear  a  crown  again."  Paris  was  soon  captured, 
Alsace  and  Lorraine  ceded  to  Germany,  and  the 
Rhine  made  the  permanent  boundary  between  the 
two  countries.  All  this  news  was  sent  to  Wilhelms 
hohe  for  the  comfort  of  the  proud  spirit  who  hoped, 
like  his  uncle,  to  be  the  dictator  of  Europe,  and 
who  only  eight  years  before  had  pompously  declared 
that  he  would  open  a  career  for  the  "  Latin  race,  and 
all  that  it  implies,  on  the  soil  of  the  New  World," 
which  was  to  be  "  the  most  glorious  enterprise  of 


3o8  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

the  nineteenth  century."  "  The  power  behind  the 
throne  "  was  the  Empress  Eugenie,  "  a  frivolous 
Spanish  bigot,"  -an  eager  partisan  of  the  pope. 
She  it  was  who  received  every  year,  on  Palm  Sun 
day,  from  the  holy  father,  "  a  palm  branch,  blessed 
by  him,  which  was  hung  at  the  head  of  her  bed  as 
a  protection  from  evil  during  the  year."  She  was 
a  ready  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  and  had 
influenced  Napoleon  in  his  inimical  relation  to 
Italy  and  Mexico.  She  believed  her  husband  was 
the  providential  instrument  to  crush  Protestant  Ger 
many  and  aid  the  pope  in  all  his  plans,  and  exult 
antly  exclaimed  as  Napoleon  started  for  Sedan, 
"  This  is  my  war." 

But  in  a  few  days  she  was  glad  to  accept  the 
aid  of  a  foreigner  in  her  secret  escape  from  Paris, 
and  to  be  allowed  to  make  her  home  in  England. 
She  was  enraged  over  the  thought  of  free  Italians  in 
Rome,  humiliated  as  the  Prussians  entered  Paris, 
and  depressed  beyond  measure  as  she  saw  herself 
perfectly  helpless  to  prevent,  a  short  time  later,  the 
establishment  of  Protestant  missions  in  the  very 
capital  where,  in  such  royal  magnificence,  she  had 
spent  the  proudest  days  of  her  romantic  life.  When 
Napoleon  died,  in  1873,  she  clung  to  her  only  son, 
"  the  Prince  Imperial,"  concerning  whom  she  had 
great  hopes  for  the  future.  But  soon  we  see 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  309 

Eugenie  alone  in  Africa,  with  her  dead  son,  "dis 
crowned,  widowed,  and  childless,  a  sad  but  striking 
memorial  of  the  penalty  dealt  out  to  the  oppressors 
of  Mexico." 

Maximilian's  sad  fate  has  already  been  explained. 
Carlotta  still  lives  in  Miramar,  hopelessly  insane. 
And  the  Jesuits,  behind  the  united  efforts  of  Napo 
leon  and  the  pope,  have  been  driven  from  nearly 
every  land  in  Christendom,  and  even  from  some 
heathen  lands.  The  United  States  of  America 
some  day  may  have  to  follow  the  example  of 
these  in  defense  of  her  blood-bought  legacies  of 
freedom. 

Now  look,  for  a  moment,  at  the  country  these 
had  all  united  to  crush.  Shortly  after  the  fall  of 
Maximilian,  Mexico  became  a  united,  happy,  and 
prosperous  nation.  For  seventeen  years  she  has 
enjoyed  uninterrupted  peace,  and  most  of  the  time 
under  the  presidency  of  a  man  who  would  readily 
make  a  leader  among  the  statesmen  of  any  nation 
of  earth — General  Porfirio  Diaz — friend  of  every 
modern  idea  that  will  lift  up  his  country,  and 
repeatedly  pledged,  by  his  own  spontaneous  voli 
tion,  to  extend  to  all  Protestant  workers  the  full 
protection  of  the  law.  When  the  so-called  empire 
fell  less  than  one  hundred  miles  of  railroad  existed 
in  the  country,  while  now  we  have  six  thousand 


3io  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

eight  hundred  and  seventy-seven  miles.  At  that 
time  only  the  chief  towns  (not  including  all  the 
State  capitals)  were  connected  by  telegraph  wire, 
while  now  there  are  twenty-five  thousand  four  hun 
dred  and  seventy-six  miles  of  such  wire,  putting 
every  town  of  any  importance  in  direct  communica 
tion  with  the  national  capital,  and  consequently 
with  the  outside  world. 

Then  there  was  but  one  bank,  and  that  not'a 
bank  of  issue,  whereas  now  we  have  a  dozen,  whose 
capital  and  business  will  compare  favorably  with 
those  of  our  own  country.  Interest  on  the  foreign 
debt  is  being  promptly  met,  and  Mexico's  credit 
abroad  is  most  excellent,  as  was  recently  proven 
by  the  eagerness  with  which  her  loan  of  .£3,000,000 
was  taken  up  in  Berlin. 

The  scheme  for  draining  the  valley,  so  long  de 
layed,  is  now  being  pushed  to  conclusion,  at  a  total 
cost  of  $15,000,003  (silver),  and  will  make  the  city 
of  Mexico  one  of  the  healthiest  on  the  continent. 
For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1893,  Mexico 
produced  $48,500,000  worth  of  silver,  or  double  the 
annual  output  of  fifteen  years  ago.  Mining  costs 
only  a  fraction  of  what  it  costs  in  the  United  States. 
The  gold  output  last  year  was  $1,400,000.  Iron  is 
plentiful.  Coal,  copper,  lead,  and  nearly  all  the 
precious  and  baser  metals  are  found.  Factories  are 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  311 

going  up  in  many  places — plants  at  Monterey  and 
San  Luis  Potosi  costing  nearly  a  million  dollars 
each  (silver),  at  San  Rafael  a  full  million,  while  the 
new  cotton  and  print  works  at  Orizaba  are  worth 
three  and  a  half  millions. 

The  worthy  president  is  especially  interested  in 
educational  matters,  as  witness  the  University  and 
Normal  School  of  Mexico  city,  as  well  as  the  new 
and  well-equipped  normal  schools,  open  to  both 
sexes,  in  Jalapa,  Oaxaca,  Durango,  Guadalajara,  and 
other  places. 

Foreign  capital  is  flowing  freely  into  the  country 
to  buy  some  of  their  excellent  tropical  lands,  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  coffee,  vanilla,  sugar,  and 
fruits.  Five  millions  (gold)  went  last  year  into  one 
district  alone  for  the  purchase  of  coffee.  No  won 
der  that  exports  have  doubled  in  the  past  fifteen 
years. 

Able  men  have  represented  Mexico  in  the  recent 
International  Medical  Congress  at  Washington, 
Chicago,  and  Rome,  while  at  the  great  Silver  Con 
gress  of  Europe  every  utterance  of  her  delegates 
commanded  closest  attention.  The  Columbian  Ex 
position  awarded  one  thousand  one  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  prizes  to  Mexican  exhibits.  We 
might  continue  on  this  line,  but  surely  this  is 
enough  to  make  clear  our  point. 


3i2  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

About  a  year  after  Columbus  came  to  these 
shores  Pope  Alexander  VI  assumed  to  divide  the 
western  world  between  the  Spanish  and  the  Portu 
guese.  Soon  after  Isabel,  "  the  poetic  and  Catholic 
queen,"  made  her  last  will  and  testament.  In  this 
interesting  instrument  we  find  the  following  para 
graph  :  u  When  we  were  granted  by  the  most  holy 
apostolic  see  the  islands  and  continents  of  the 
great  ocean,  discovered  and  to  be  discovered,  our 
principal  intention  was,  as  we  prayed  from  Pope 
Alexander  VI,  of  blessed  memory,  who  made  us  the 
grant,  to  endeavor  to  induce  and  bring  the  peoples 
thereof  by  conversion  to  the  holy  Catholic  faith, 
and  to  send  to  said  islands  and  continents  prelates 
and  ecclesiastics,  clergymen  and  gifted  persons  fear 
ing  God,  to  instruct  the  residents  thereof  in  the 
Catholic  faith,  showing  them  and  instructing  them 
in  good  doctrine  and  customs,  and  pay  such  atten 
tion  thereto  as  is  explained  more  at  length  in  the 
letters  of  grant.  Very  affectionately  I  pray  the 
king,  my  lord,  and  beg  of  the  princess,  my  daughter, 
and  her  husband,  the  prince,  that  they  may  so  do 
and  ordain,  and  that  this  may  be  their  principal 
aim  ;  that  they  may  place  especial  attention  there 
in,  and  that  they  do  not  permit  nor  allow  the 
neighboring  Indians  and  inhabitants  of  the  islands 
and  continents,  conquered  and  to  be  conquered,  to 


NEW  LIFE  IN  MEXICO.  313 

receive  injury  in  their  persons,  but  that  they  be 
justly  and  well  treated  ;  and  should  they  have  re 
ceived  any  hurt  or  injury,  that  the  same  be  repaired 
and  atoned  for,  so  that  nothing  may  be  done  be 
yond  that  ordained  in  our  Apostolic  Letters  of 
Credence." 

To  this  solemn  legacy  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
has  been  wofully  recreant,  losing  one  of  the  sub- 
limest  opportunities  ever  placed  within  the  reach 
of  any  Church.  In  the  providence  of  God  this 
country  now  looks  to  us.  In  Mexico  are  twelve 
million  souls  ;  beyond,  in  Central  and  South  Amer 
ica,  are  about  fifty  millions  more,  making,  in  all, 
over  sixty  millions. 

Not  one  European  missionary  is  found  working 
in  their  midst.  Nor  will  such  ever  probably  work 
south  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Methodism,  in  common 
with  all  evangelical  Churches  of  the  United  States, 
has  the  high  privilege  and  solemn  duty  of  helping 
to  lift  up  and  evangelize  these  millions ;  every  door 
is  open,  and  further  progress  toward  this  glorious 
consummation  depends  only  upon  the  liberality  of 
our  people.  Bishop  Newman  never  uttered  a  more 
important  truth  than  when  in  New  York  he  recently 
said,  "  I  believe  that  God  has  placed  in  our  respon 
sibility  all  this  continent." 

Mexico  long  ago  took  its  place  in  the  galaxy  of 


3  H  SKETCHES  OF  MEXICO. 

civilized  nations.  Let  its  State  and  local  authorities 
cooperate  heartily  with  the  central  government  in 
the  protection  of  modern  industries,  of  educational 
advantages,  and  religious  liberty ;  let  its  schools 
multiply,  let  its  free  press  extend  everywhere,  let 
evangelical  church  spires  multiply  throughout  its 
beautiful  va.les  and  on  its  noble  mountain  sides,  and 
then  the  land  of  Moctezuma,  of  Hidalgo,  of  Juarez, 
and  of  Diaz  will  arise  in  all  the  strength  of  its  new 
life  to  recognize  as  its  chief  ruler  and  divine  guide 
"  the  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords." 


INDEX. 


Abbott,  Gorham  D.,  31. 
Acosta,  Jose  de,  24. 
Almonte,  272,  279. 
Amaquemacan,  144,  146. 
"Anonymous  Conqueror,  The,"  23. 
"Atlantic,"  etymology  of  word,  60. 
Atlantis,  56. 
Audience,  235. 
Augustine  I,  259. 
Authorities,  list  of,  23-31. 
Aztecs,  their  route  to  Mexico,  156- 

161 

Aztlan,  151. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  II.,  30. 
Boturini,  Lorenzo  Benaduci,  26. 
Bravo,  episode  of,  254,  255. 
Brinton,  criticised,  18. 
"  Burning  the  ships,"  224. 
Calderon,  Madame,  31,  292,  293, 

303. 

Calendar,  Mexican,  133,  134. 

Calendar  stone,  77. 

California,  sale  of,  266. 

Carlota,  287. 

Carthaginian  theory  of  popula 
tion,  55. 

Cempoala,  Cortez  at,  215. 

Chichimecs,  126,  144-150. 

Chinese,  origin  of  population,  7*- 

Cholula,  pyramid  of,  1 10, 1 1 3,  229. 

Clavigero,  Francisco  Javier,  27. 

Coat  of  arms,  159. 

Color,  variety  of,  39. 

Comonfort,  270,  272,  298. 

Constitution  of  1814,  253. 

Constitution  of  1857,  270,  271. 

Cortez,  biographical  sketch,  201- 
205  ;  arrival  in  Mexico,  206  ; 
receives  embassy,  210-215  ; 
overthrows  idols,  215-220  ; 
conspiracy  against,  221-224  ; 


burns  his  ships,  224,  225  ;  at 
Tlaxcala,  226-228  ;  victor,  230. 

Cozumel,  Cortez  at,  218. 

Creation  .Quiche  account  0^95,96. 

Cross,  symbol  of,  25,  116,  117. 

Cuautemoc,  monument  to,  4-7. 

Diaz,  Bernal,  23. 

Diaz,  Porfirio,  309-315. 

Egyptian  theory  of  Mexicans,  51. 

"  Fair  God,"  117,  119,  138-143. 

Ferdinand  VII,  245,  257,  258. 

French  interference,  279—291. 

Gage,  Thomas,  27. 

Greek  theory  of  population,  49. 

"  Grito  de  Dolores,"  248. 

Herrera,  A.  de,  24. 

Hidalgo,  246-252. 

Hindoo  origin  of  population,  71. 

Huehue  Tlapallan,  123. 

Hueman,  128-131,  140. 

Huitzilopochtli,  157,  160,  167, 
190,  229. 

Humboldt,  Alexander  Von,  28. 

Independence,  struggle  for,   246- 

259- 

Irish  theory  of  population,  47. 
Isabella's  will,  312. 
Iturbide,  258,  259. 
Ixtlilxochitl,  24. 

Japanese  origin  of  population,  73. 
Jewish  theory  of  population,  67. 
Juarez,    270,    272-274,    282-291, 

298,  299. 

Kingsborough,  Lord,  29. 
Language,  diversity  of,  39. 
Las  Casas,  B.  de,  24. 
Leif,  son  of  Eric,  51. 
Madoc-ap-Owen,  44. 
Marina,  209. 

Maximilian,  283,  284,  290. 
Maya,  86-92,  105, 


INDEX. 


Maya-Quiche,  86-88,  92. 
Mayer.Brantz,  31. 

Metals,    production   of  precious, 

191. 

Mexican  War,  266,  269. 
Mexico   city  founded,    160,   165  ; 

derivation  of  name,  167. 
Mexitli,  161,  167. 
Mining,  310. 
Miramon,  272,  288. 
Missions,  299-3 T 4. 
Moctezuma  I,  174,  177. 
Moctezuma    II,    178-187  ;    sends 

gifts  to  Cortez,  210-215. 
Morelos,  253. 

Mormon  account  of  Mexicans,  66. 
Motolinia,  23. 
Naphtuhim,  52,  54. 
Napoleon  I,  244. 
Napoleon  III,  272,  279-284,  307- 

309- 

Nationalization  of  Church  prop 
erty,  291,  292. 

Nezahualcoyotl,  170-173. 

Norse  theory  of  population,  50. 

Numidian  theory  of  population,  56. 

Olmecs,  113-119. 

Ophir,  location  of,  75. 

Origin  of  Mexicans,  35-80  ; 
AUtochthonic  theory,  35-43  ; 
European  theories,  44-51  ; 
African  theories,  52 ;  Asiatic 
theories,  64-80 ;  diverse  ori 
gin,  83. 

Otomis,  119.    . 

Paintings,  importance  of,  10  ;  col 
lections  of,  13. 

Palenque,  106,  114. 

Papantzin,  Dona  Maria,   1 88. 

Phoenician    origin  of  population, 

74- 

Plan  of  Iguala,  258. 
Popol  Vuh,  94,  95. 
Prehistoric  Mexicans,  83-120. 
Prescott,  William  H.,  29. 
Pulque,  137. 
Quetzalcoatl,  117-119,  191. 


Quetzalcohuatl,  125. 

Quiche,  92-95. 

Quinames,  108. 

Railroads,  309. 

Ramirez,  on  Mexico's  debt  to 
Spain,  231. 

Rankin,  Miss  Melinda,  299. 

Records,  destruction  of,  9  ;  com 
pleteness  of,  10;  collections 
of,  13- 

Reform  laws,  the,  274,  275. 

Robertson,  William,  27. 

Roman  theory  of  population,  50. 

Sahagun,  Bernardino  cle,  24. 

Santa  Ana,  260-262,  269. 

Scandinavian  theory  of  popu 
lation,  50. 

Scotch  theory  of  population,  48. 

Scourging,  293. 

Se ward's  note  to  France,  286. 

Short,  John  T.,  31. 

Siguenzay  Gongora,  Carlos  de, 25. 

Statistics,  301. 

St.  Thomas  in  Mexico,  118,  119. 

Telegraphs.  310. 

"  Ten  Lost  Tribes,"  67. 

Tenoch,  166,  168. 

Tenochtitlan,  160. 

Teoamoxtli,  131,  132. 

Teoicpalli,  157. 

Tezcatlipoca,  140-143. 

Tezcoco,  145,  168,  169. 

Thompson,  Waddy,  31. 

Tlaxcala  taken,  226. 

Tlaxcalans,  153-155. 

Toltecs,  123-127. 

Torquemada,  Juan  de,  25. 

Totonacs,  119. 

Tula,  ruins  of,  19-21,  101,  104, 
129,  130,  135,  136. 

Victor  Emmanuel,  306. 

Victoria.  260. 

Votan,  89. 

Welsh  theory  of  Mexicans,  44. 

Wilson,  R.  A.,  32. 

Xicalancas,  113-119. 

Yucatan,  Mayas  of,  105. 


,lii,£i,gf£,Kt,§V  LIBRARIES 


